eChapters

Abstract

Toxic plants are a grave threat to existence and bodily functions of humans and animals resulting in death or sickness through accident, unawareness or bad intention resulting in huge economic loss. They have always been part of our daily life and some of them are so prevalent that we do not even doubt their poisonous nature. The study aimed at systematically documenting the precious traditional knowledge regarding the ethnotoxic plants of district Udhampur. Ethnotoxic data was collected by interviewing 125 infomants between the age group 24-95 years. A total of 89 plant species belonging to 69 genera and 43 families were observed to be toxic to either humans or animals or both. Majority of the taxa were growing in wild. Leaves were observed to be the most toxic plant parts. Frequently encountered toxic plant families include Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae and Ranunculaceae. The route /mode of entry of toxic chemicals was mainly observed to be ingestion. A total of 62 ailments/ conditions/diseases were reported to be caused in humans or animals or both by the ingestion, contact or inhalation of toxic plants in the present study. These include nausea, vomiting, headache, diarrhoea, hematochezia, abdominal spasms, anorexia, dysuria, deep yellow or no urine, bloat, etc. The present study may serve as a base line data for further research and will go a long way in safeguarding people from being poisoned by stuff that may have healed them.

Abstract

India harbors a wide variety of medicinal plants used traditionally in various remedies to treat livestock ailments. The therapeutic value of these plants attributes due to the concentration of several bioactive compounds present in them. Indigenous tribal communities are the treasurer of age-old traditional knowledge which inhabits Asian country since centuries. District Poonch exhibits a rich repository of traditional knowledge as major part of the population comprised of nomadic tribes such as Gujjars and Bakerwals which are still practicing the primitive traditional ways to treat diseases. In the present investigation, the traditional herbal plants and associated remedies for treatment of various veterinary disorders are presented. A total of 34 plant species belonging to 30 genera and 21 families have been reported which are being used by indigenous people for ethnoveterinary purposes. The majority of ethnoveterinary plants recorded from the district belong to families such as Ranunculaceae and Araceae (4 species each), Acoraceae, Amaryllidaceae, Apiaceae, Fagaceae, Lamiaceae, Primulaceae, Rutaceae (2 species each) and rest of the families members were represented by one species each. The frequently used plant parts are roots (30.23%), followed by tubers (18.6%), leaves (16.28%), fruits and whole plant (13.95% each), stems (4.65%) and seeds (2.33%). It has been observed that numerous formulations are made from these parts which are used for the treatment of various cattle infections such as abdominal colic, allergic infection, anestrous, chest diseases, constipation, cough, digestive troubles, FMD, fracture, galactagogue, gaseous bloat, induce puberty, internal injury, lung disease, pneumonia, quick discharge, removal of Leech, sexual stimulant, skin infection, snake-bite, stomachache and weakness with snake bite being dominant. The present study infers that the documentation of ethnoveterinary knowledge from the district requires utmost attention and may give leads or serves for further biochemical studies for the discovery of novel plant based drugs which will certainly helps in commercialization and betterment of tribals through benefit resource sharing.

Introduction

Harshberger first used the term ethnobotany in 1895-96, for the plants used by the local tribes and people, for their basic needs and requirements. They also used plant, plant parts and plant products for animal healthcare and other practices. This indigenous or traditional animal health care practice is called ethnoveterinary medicine. Ethnoveterinary medicine is defined as a holistic comprehension of the indigenous systems of animal health, their interpretation through western medicine and the development of effective and appropriate technologies (McCorkle 1986). McCorkle et al. (1989) define Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) as dealing with the folk beliefs, knowledge, skills, methods and practices pertaining to the health care of animals. McCorkle et al. (1996) give a description of ethnoveterinary medicinal research as the holistic interdisciplinary study of the local knowledge and the socio-cultural structures and environment associated with animal health care and husbandry.
 
EVM consists of local people’s knowledge pertaining to animal health and production. According to Mathias (1996 & 2002), it includes:

4.1. Fruit ripening

• Genetically programmed stage of development overlapping with senescence.

• Ripe when attains full flavour and aroma

• Optimum ripening condition for fruits• Conditions for controlled ripening of fruits at RH of 85-90%

5.1.1. Climacteric fruits

• Apple, apricot, avocado, banana, ber, cherimoya, fig, guava, kiwifruit, mango, melons, pear, peach, plum, persimmon, papaya, tomato, sapota and passion fruit

5.1.2. Non climacteric fruits

• Carambola, cherries, citrus, grape, litchi, loquat, olive, pineapple, pomegranate and strawberry

Difference between climacteric and non-climacteric fruits

Plant hormone ethylene is involved in a number of physiological activities within the plant system, ranging from seed germination to fruit development. Ethylene acts as a key player in accelerating fruit ripening by regulating the activities of different enzymes, and is responsible for shortening the shelf life and associated post-harvest losses during the storage of fruit crops. However, all fruit crops have different ethylene production capacities and vary in their response to ethylene. Hence, effective management of post-harvest ethylene is imperative for addressing the global challenge of reducing fruit losses after harvesting. In recent periods, numerous technologies and compounds have been developed for the suppression of ethylene and for enhancing in-situ oxidation of ethylene or inhibiting its production at a receptor level. Among these emerging techniques, the use of sachets, fumigating agents, catalysis and composite films embedded with nanoparticles has been found to be trending, but the use of some of compounds has been limited due to health risks or consumer unacceptance. However, most of these technologies are very costly and are not affordable for marginal farmers and developing nations. In order to address these issues, long term breeding approaches for shelf-life improvement, targeting the tfs, ERFs have been involved. This manuscript fills the knowledge gap by encompassing all the recent progress made in enhancing the shelf life of fruits by managing ethylene during storage.

ABSTRACT

Soft rot of ginger caused by the fungus Pythium aphanidermatum is a major disease affecting ginger cultivation. To combat invading pathogen in the event of infection plants are known to produce antimicrobial pathogenesis related proteins (PR proteins) prominent among which are antifungal hydrolases like glucanases and chitinases. Since Pythium lacks chitin in its cell wall, increase in level of glucanase in the plant may enhance the resistance of ginger to soft rot disease. Signal molecule like ethylene plays a prominent role in the defense response of plants. The present study was undertaken to investigate the role of ethylene in enhancing the level of glucanase in the ginger system. Detached leaves of Rio de Janeiro variety of ginger were used in different experiments. Leaves were treated with ethephon at different concentrations and different time intervals. Increase in the glucanase activity by ethephon treatment was quantified by enzyme assay using crude protein extract. Glucanase levels showed an initial increase with increasing concentration of ethephon but decreased at higher concentration (5 mg/ml). A longer exposure of detached leaves to ethephon (48 h) resulted in 3.7 fold increase in glucanase activity compared to control. The level of enhancement of the glucanase transcript also followed a similar trend as revealed by RT PCR analysis. Two acidic isoforms of glucanase were detected using native PAGE and their levels were found to be enhanced by treatment with ethephon. An increase in the levels of glucanase may contribute to the plant’s ability to resist infection by Pythium.

Ethylene (C₂H₄ also known as ethene) is a gaseous organic compound that is the simplest of the alkenes chemical structures (alkenes contain a carbon-carbon double bond). The hormone effects of ethylene on general plant growth were first noted in 1864 when leakage from gas street lighting systems caused stunting and deformation of nearby plants. In 1901 Neljubow identified the active component of the gas to be ethylene but it was not until 1934 that Gane identified that plants could synthesize ethylene and in 1935 Crocker proposed ethylene to be the hormone responsible for fruit ripening and senescence of vegetative tissues.

Ethylene play important role in many plant during development processes, including seed germination, vegetative growth, leaf abscission, flowering, senescence and fruit ripening. Ethylene also plays a role in response to water stress, chilling and mechanical injury.

Answer the followings
    Q.1.    What is the relative incidence of  Streptococcus agalactiae, other Streptococci and Staphylococcus aureus
    Ans.    1:1: 2
    Q.2.    What are sources of contagious pathogen for mastitis?
    Ans.    Udder surfaces of infected quarters 
    Q.3.    What are sources of environmental pathogen for mastitis?
    Ans.    Bedding of cow’s environment
    Q.4.    When animal get infection from environmental pathogen?
    Ans.    Animal get infection at any time during the life such as milking time, between milking, during dry period and prior to first calving.
    Q.8.    What is the probable period of new infection from environmental pathogen?
    Ans.    Early part of dry period and first two months of lactation.
    Q.9.    What is the relation of growth of Corynebacterium bovis in milk and lactation?

What causes lead to mental illness? Although the exact origin of the majority of mental health problems is unclear, research indicates that many of these diseases are caused by a combination of biological, psychological, environmental and socioeconomic factors.
Many mental illnesses are passed down through family lineage. However, it doesn’t imply that just because one or more of one’s ancestors had an illness, they will compulsarily inherit it too. But just because your mother or father had one does not mean you will.
Some illnesses impair brain circuits that control thought, emotion and behavior. Within particular circuits, for instance, certain brain chemicals known as neurotransmitters may be activated excessively or insufficiently. Certain mental diseases are also linked to brain injury.
Mental health illness in adolescence are a significant problem, relatively common and amenable to treatment or intervention. Mental disorders and mental health problems seem to have increased considerably among adolescents in the past 20-30 years. The rise has been driven by social change, including disruption of family structure, growing youth unemployment and increasing educational and vocational pressures.
The prevalence of mental health disorders among 11 to 15 year olds in Great Britain is estimated to be 11%, with conduct problems more common among boys and depression and anxiety more common among girls. The identification, treatment and follow up of mental health problems in young people can be complicated. Parents and teachers may dismiss problems as merely reflecting adolescent turmoil. Young people are often very reluctant to seek help, owing to developmental needs about being “normal” at the time when they are exploring identity issues and trying to engage with a peer group.

Etiology

Etiology is the study of cause of disease. It gives precise causal diagnosis of any disease. Broadly, the cause of diseases can be divided into two

a. Intrinsic causes.

b. Extrinsic causes.

Intrinsic Causes

Those causes which determine the type of disease present within an individual over which he has no control. These causes are further divided into following subgroups:

Genus

Specific diseases occur in a particular genus or species of animals. e.g. Hog cholera in pigs, Canine distemper in dogs

Introduction

The international fish trade increases day by day reaching to a tune of USD 151 billion in 2020 (FAO, 2022). Many developing countries like India gain benefits from this trade as income through net foreign exchange reached to a level of 8.09 billion USD in 2019-20. Seafood supplied by developing countries contribute to 77% of fish consumption worldwide. The European Union (EU) is the single largest market for fish and fishery products to a tune of 91.74 billion USD in 2022 as a consequence of an increased per capita consumption among its Member States. Spain, Italy, Germany and the United Kingdom are the largest importer of fish and fishery products.

To protect consumer health and to protect the territory from the introduction of animal and plant diseases, the European Community (EC) has laid down joint conditions for imports of foodstuffs. The Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection (DG SANCO) is responsible for food safety in the EU. The import rules for fishery products are framed of high standards with respect to hygiene, consumer safety and animal health status. It is important that importing countries and food business operators (FBOs) must understand the fundamental principles and requirements of the European Food Law to ensure efficient and smooth imports. The EU system relies on Government to Government assurances without any intervention of any private type certification or standards. The Competent Authority (CA) in the country of origin is responsible for giving the official guarantees to the EU regarding compliance and conformity to all requirements of its legislation. The Export Inspection Agency (EIA) is the Competent Authority in India for issuing the required official guarantees for export of fish and fishery products. The EIA maintains a complete list of all establishments under its control.

12.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Australia and Malaysia.

• Introduced by British people in Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu for fuel and timber.

• Commercially grown in Seychelles, Java, South Africa, Guatemala, Congo and Brazil.

• Eucalyptus tereticornis - Commercial species

• Major growing states - UP, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.

12.2. Economic importance

• Known as spotted gum tree.

• Source of citronellol, hydroxycitronellal and menthol.

• Contains 0.5-4% essential oil; rich in citronella.

• Essential oil - Therapeutic and ayurvedic benefits.

• Used in soaps, mouth wash liquids, massage oils, air fresheners and bug repellents

A family of over 322 genera and 8,900 species, Euphorbiaceae is closely related to Sterculiaceae of the Malvales through the various degrees of the union of stamens and the presence of the pistillode and staminode in the male and female flowers, respectively. They are distributed mainly in tropics, but also in Mediterranean region, Australia and USA. Some of the largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their world over reported species are Euphorbia (2000), Croton (700), Phyllanthus (500), Acalypha (430), Japtropha (175), Manihot (170).
Selected Indian Genera
Acalypha, Codiaeum, Euphorbia, Hevea, Jatropha, Mallotus, Manihot, Phyllanthus, Poinsettia, Putranjiva, Ricinus.
Economic Importance
1. Fruits of Emblica officinalis are rich in vitamins, medicinal and also used for tanning.
2. Garden croton (Codiaeum variegatum) with variegated leaves, poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima Fig. 32.1, Fig. 32.3) with beautiful red bracts, Acalypha sanderiana, A. tricolor and Pedilanthus tithymaloides (Jew’s slipper), Putranjiva roxburghii (Child life tree) are used as ornamental purpose; Jatropha gossypifolia is commonly grown as hedge; Manihot esculenta (tapioca) yield valuable starchy food; Manihot utillissima (bitter cassava); Manihot alpe (sweet cassava); Manihot glaziovii yields ceara rubber; Hevea brasiliensis yields para rubber; fruits of Mallotus philippinensis yields a crimson powder used for dyeing silk, etc.

Description and Distribution
The genus Anethum comprises 3 species, 2 of which are recognized for commercial use, and, yield Dill oil used in medicine.These 2 species are:
1. Anethum graveolens (European Dill)
2. Anethum sowa (Indian Dill)
European Dill is indigenous to Europe and is cultivated in England, Germany, Romania, Turkey ,USA and former Soviet Union. Until recently, it was not grown in India. However, efforts have been made to acclimatize it in Jammu (Kashmir, India) according to the Regional Research Laboratory (RRL, Jammu) and the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India, Bhubaneshwar (Odisha State) and its exports also have started since 1988-89. The trends in exports are given in the following table (Table 24)
Export Trends Overview of Top 10 Exporting Countries in 2023
In 2023, India was the top exporting country of Dill, followed by Turkiye, South Africa, China, United States, Spain, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Netherlands, United Arab Emirates. This ranking is based on available export data and may not include countries with missing records.

13.1 Introduction

Eutrophication, means an increase in chemical nutrients — typically compounds containing nitrogen and phosphorus in an ecosystem. It may occur on land or in water. The term is however often used to mean the resultant increase in the ecosystem’s primary productivity (Fig. 13.1), in other words excessive plant growth and decay and even further impacts, including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality and in fish and other animal populations.

1. Multiple Choice Questions

Introduction

Structural changes in host cells by the viral infection is referred as cytopathic effect (CPE) and the responsible virus is called cytopathogenic virus. As a virus hijacks a cell to make copies of itself, the cell goes through distinct changes in its chemistry and structure. These effects are easiest to see in lab grown cell cultures. The severity of the damage caused by the virus depends on the specific virus itself, the type of cell it infects, how many viruses infect each cell (MOI), and other factors.

The early stages of this damage, called cytopathic effects (CPE), can be spotted directly under a microscope without any dyes or special treatments. While various types of CPE exist in living cells, some signs of viral infection, like inclusion bodies, require staining the cells to be visible. We can classify viruses based on how quickly they cause visible damage (cytopathic effect) in cell cultures. Viruses are typically considered slow if it takes 4-5 days to see this effect in cultures with a low starting dose of virus (MOI). On the other hand, viruses are considered fast if the damage shows up in just 1-2 days under the same conditions. It is important to note that at a high MOI all CPE can occur rapidly. So all decisions about rate of CPE appearance should be based on the lowest MOI that produces CPE

Successful irrigation development requires careful evaluation of soil and land characteristics before irrigation is introduced or expanded. This chapter deals with the principles and criteria used to evaluate land for irrigation and determine its suitability for sustained agricultural production. Important soil and land characteristics considered include surface-soil texture, particle-size class of the subsoil, coarse fragments, soil depth, permeability, salinity, exchangeable sodium percentage, slope and drainage. These factors determine the ability of land to store and transmit water, support root growth and withstand potential problems associated with irrigation. The chapter introduces land irrigability classification and explains the overall capability index (Ci), including its calculation and interpretation. Subclasses are considered to identify specific limitations affecting irrigated agriculture. The chapter further discusses land suitability classification and the structure used for assessing suitability. Physical condition of soil is included as an important component of land evaluation. By integrating soil, water and landscape characteristics, the chapter provides a systematic basis for identifying suitable land, recognizing limitations and planning sustainable irrigation development.

Summary

Human activities involving rapid industrialization and urbanization without concomitant environmental planning have resulted in a situation where substantial parts of our land and water resources have been polluted with organic and inorganic toxicants.  Environmental engineering principles have been utilized to detoxify polluted areas; however, the efforts, adopting predominantly physico-chemical methods, have addressed the issue to a restricted extent, focusing on solutions for specific categories of pollutants and applicable for limited areas, in addition to being expensive. Hence cost-effective sustainable alternatives in the form of bioremediation (involving microorganisms) and phytoremediation (involving plants alone or along with associated rhizospheric microorganisms) are gaining public acceptance. Considerable scientific evidence has proved that many plant species can detoxify the pollutants utilizing various mechanisms. In this background, in vitro plant cultures have served as invaluable tools in identifying appropriate plant species for phytoremediation. Better understanding of the complex interactions underlying phytoremediation has been facilitated using in vitro cultures where the only variable is the pollutant, in contrast to field experiments where there are many confounding variables. While straightforward extrapolation of in vitro data can be erroneous, these systems provide the basic framework for translating laboratory-scale experiments to field-scale technologies.

Summary

The soil is the basis of agriculture as the productivity of the farm enterprise is strongly linked to the fertility status of the soil. The soil acts as a reservoir for the essential nutrients that crops need for growth. When these nutrients are in sufficient quantities and balance, agricultural productivity is greatly enhanced. On the other hand if the nutrients are in short supply and imbalanced, crop growth is hampered. When crops grow and produce harvest, they remove nutrients from the soil. These nutrients are exported when the grains or edible parts are eaten and the stover removed. Consequently with time, a soil that is considered fertility will also lose its fertility if no nutrients are added periodically. It is important to assess the fertility status of the soil before planting and all necessary ameliorations effected in time to ensure a good harvest. Various methods exist for evaluating soil fertility. The best indicator of a fertile soil is good growth of crops growing on it.