eChapters

Abstract

The knowledge of engineering (physical) properties constitutes important and essential data in the design of machines, storage structures and processes. The present investigation was carried out determine the physical parameter (diameters, mass, volume, density, sphericity, angle of repose etc.) of varieties KPS 10. The moisture content in green pea (KPS 10) was observed 411.77% (db). The average values of dimensional and geometrical parameter like length (D₁), width (D₂), height (D₃), AMD, GMD and SMD were found 9.517mm, 9.343 mm, 7.707 mm, 8.856 mm, 8.816 mm and 15.305 mm respectively. Mean values of mass of 1000 pea seeds, volume, bulk density and true density were found 329.501 g, 0.2 ml, 0.275 g/cm₃ and 0.304 g/cm₃ respectively. Average values of angle of repose, sphericity, porosity and moisture content were found 24.7, 0.926 %, 9.528 and 80.96%, respectively.

Introduction In today’s environment, the greatest challenge for the food industry is to develop health promoting foods; it is determined by the raw materials used and its impact on consumer health. Furthermore, people lifestyle has changed greatly, resulting in a change in food eating patterns. In today’s world, people are moving towards eating foods that are nutrient base and tasty (Bonciu, 2018). of all the nutrient based products available in market, expanded snacks have become a popular snack all over the world because of its crunchy texture and low density making it consumer’s acceptance (Grasso, 2020). The basic idea for developing any expanded snacks is utilizing a starch-based material for a better crispy and crunchy product, but to make it more nutritious incorporation of protein and fibre rich raw materials is recommended (Gu et al., 2017). Along with the raw materials, the other important parameters for developing any extruded product is the particle of the flour, its physicochemical and rheological properties of the extrudates are much concentrated (Bouasla & Wójtowicz, 2021) Thereby, extruded snack is considering as functional food with major health benefits.

5.1 Introduction

Quality is one of the major positioning tools of the commodity for marketability, profitability and for consumer satisfaction. The relative importance of each quality component depends upon the commodity and its intended use and varies among growers, handlers and consumers. To growers a given commodity must have high yield and good appearance and must withstand long distance transportation to market whereas, appearance of quality and longevity is important from the point of view of wholesale and retail marketers. Terms commonly used in measurement of keeping quality of cut flowers are longevity, shelf-life, vase-life, and lasting quality. In addition to these, several criteria have been used for evaluation of post harvest flower quality like:

Epididymal Total Sperm Count

The epididymal sperm is obtained as described above, incubated at 35°C, which is the optimum temperature of rat epididymal sperm. The epididymal f luid is then diluted to a volume of 5 mL of pre-warmed (32°C) the spermatozoa are counted by hemocytometer using the Improved Neubaur (Deep 1/10mm. LABART, Germany) chamber as described by Pant and Srivastava (2003).

Total viable cell/ml = (Average number of sperm per chamber) x 103 x (Dilution Factor)

Liveability and abnormal sperm

Per cent live spermatozoa is estimated by differential staining technique using Eosin-Nigrosin stain (NE) (Campbell et al., 1953). These slides are also used for estimating the per cent abnormal sperm morphologically on the basis of observable abnormalities of head, neck, mid-piece and trail region of the spermatozoa.

The percent live spermatozoa are determined adopting the differential staining technique using Eosin-Nigrosin stain.

• A drop of epididymal semen is taken on a clean, grease free pre warmed glass slide.

• 4-5 drops of Eosin-Nigrosine stain (1% Eosin and 5% Nigrosine in 3% sodium citrate dehydrate solution) is placed near the semen drop.

• Epididymal semen and stain are mixed gently using a blunt fine glass rod.

• After 30 seconds to 1 minute a thin smear is made on a clean, grease free glass slide.

• The smear is examined under oil immersion objective.

• Mature sperm cells are undifferentiated cells which are the testicular product as well as indicators of testicular spermatogenic function. A spermiogram reflects the testicular activity and fertility status of a male animal. • Disease conditions, age, stress factors, vaccination or any altered physiological conditions may affect the seminal quality. Objectives of Semen Evaluation • To provide essential information about the fertility status of the male animal, though the fertilizing capacity of the animal cannot be completely defined by these tests. • To diagnose various pathological conditions of testes and male genitalia. • To determine the eligibility for further processing of semen cryopreservation • To determine the potential of semen for AI purposes

ABSTRACT

The present study reports shoreline changes at Gopalpur along east coast of India for 30 years during 1973-2003. In order to understand the trend of sediment transport, shoreline changes at the vicinity areas viz. Rushikulya and Bahuda estuaries are also discussed. Geomorphological investigation is also carried out to understand the processes acting on this system. One Landsat image (1973) and two IRS 1C/1D images (1993 and 2003) were used for the study. The data were subjected to digital analysis using ERDAS Imagine and management of information layers using ARC/INFO GIS software. The results of the study show that the changes occurred differently in three distinct spatial features namely, i) sand spit ii) beach and, (iii) channel zone. Changes documented in these imageries reveal that the lengths of NE spit and SW spit are increased and decreased respectively in thirty years. Areas of NE and SW spits are also showing the similar pattern. Beach is almost stabilised and a slight decrease of 0.28 km in length is observed. However, area has been increased in the southern beach. Towards north, the beach area is also increased over a period of thirty years. The change of width of the beach is not found to be significant. The mouth near channel zone is reduced to 70 meter from 135 meter during the period of study.

Quality of silage is determined by nutrients content and intake potential of the silage. High quality silage is a stable feed, made from high quality pasture, which is preserved in the absence of oxygen by a high quality fermentation, to minimize any loss of feeding value. It is not possible to produce high quality silage from low quality pasture, no matter how good the fermentation is. The silage quality is generally used to indicate the success of fermentation and not to evaluate the feeding value of the silage. However, the fermentation quality and nutritional value of the silage are usually highly correlated because a poor fermentation can result in great loss of the digestible nutrients (Sutoh et al., 1970; Uchida and Sutoh, 1973). Therefore, both the quality of the ensiled pasture and the quality of the fermentation must be considered.

Abstract

The data for the present investigation were obtained from the performance records of 1081 crossbred cattle progeny of 65 sires maintained at Instructional Dairy Farm Nagla of G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology Pantnagar, distributed over a period of 40 years from 1966-2005. A total of 65 sires were evaluated on the basis of single and multi traits of their progeny. For single trait sire evaluation, FLMY was considered as principal trait under univariate models viz- simple daughter’s average () method, least squares method (LSM), DFREML-I method and BLUP-I method. However, for evaluation of sires by multi traits FLMY+AFC, FLMY+FLP and FLMY+AFC+FLP, the multivariate models viz. DFREML-II, DFREML-III, DFREML-IV, BLUP-II, BLUP-III and BLUP-IV method were used. The lowest average breeding value (2616.25) for the trait was obtained by () method and the highest average breeding value (2660.42 kg) was obtained by the rest nine methods. The accuracy, efficiency and stability of different sire indices were compared to judge their effectiveness. The evaluation method that gave the lowest error variance was considered to be most efficient.

Abstract

Twenty seven genotypes including two wild relatives of strawberry were evaluated for resistance against leaf spot caused by various fungal species viz.,Phyllosticta, Pestalotia, Hainesia lythri and Phyllosticta fragaricola under natural conditions. None of the genotypes was found to be resistant against leaf spot. However, the cultivar ‘Fern’ showed moderately susceptible reaction whereas the remaining genotypes were either susceptible or highly susceptible, suggesting the need for diversifying the germplasm either through open pollinated seedling selection or through hybridizing genotypes of divergent origin for resistance against leaf spot.

Introduction

In the past few decades, there has been a considerable demand for certain air-breathing fishes from India, mainly in the research laboratories of western countries. This is probably due to their unique modifications, especially in the respiratory and circulatory systems. Though, the air-breathing fishes are capable of extracting oxygen both from water as well as air, yet their transportation to long distances in living conditions posed several problems, such as hypoxia, injury, disease and finally death.

Proper sanitization of all the equipment and accessories is one of the essential steps for the study of the structure of gills, determination of oxygen uptake of fishes under normal conditions, under the association, under anaesthetization, under ammonia toxicity and all other steps of packing and transportation in this pandemic of COVID-19.

For effective live fish transportation, inside and out comprehension on the ideal ecological conditions for negligible pressure and greatest endurance is required. At the point when the fish leaves its normal climate, it should be in a self-supportable climate that provisions important necessities, for example, ideal temperature, oxygen and so forth.

Transportation of different life cycle stages (spawn, hatchlings, fry, fingerlings and adults) of fish is traditionally done in different types of containers. The age-old practice of transportation entails heavy mortality probably due to depletion of oxygen, hypertension of carbon dioxide, the toxicity of accumulating wastes, hyperactive strain and exhaustion, infection, injury and variation in pH, temperature, salinity and hardness etc (Jhingran, 1985). A portion of dissolved oxygen is utilized both by the fish and other microorganisms for their metabolism. As a result, the system becomes gradually deplete of oxygen and affects the fish. To overcome the problem of high mortality during transportation, it is essential to evaluate suitable conditions for their transportation. An inexpensive or less expensive method of live fish transport will help our aqua-culturists in many ways.

1. Acute    Toxicity    
 ? Duration-exposure of the toxicant for 24 hrs either single dose or 
multiple doses
 ? Species selection-Rat preferred rodent species
 ? weight variation should not exceed ± 20% of mean weight
 ? Number and sex -Atleast 5 rodents at each dose level of same sex
 ? If female-nulliparous and non pregnant
 Housing and feeding    
? Temperature of experimental room-22( ±3 °C)
 ? Relative humidity (R.H.)-30-70%
 ? Animals in cage should be properly spaced
 ? Individual caging for morbid and excited animal
 ? Artificial lightining-12 hrs light,12 hrs dark
 ? Conventional laboratory diet & ad lib water

Probably since the beginning of human life on the planet, they have used local fruits and vegetables. For a long time, they have enjoyed the fruit of the wild trees without knowing how to successfully produce them. Such native fruit trees have many advantages. These trees have an extraordinary genetic diversity that can be exploited in breeding programs and genetic advancement of domestic varieties (Khadivi et al., 2020). Many indigenous fruits are still highly valuable, and the harvesting and selling of these forest fruits contribute significantly to the local economy of families in the area. The product collected from forest trees is completely healthy and in terms of quality, they may even be equal to “organic fruits”. In a most recently published book chapter entitled organic pomegranate production in Iran, compiled by Alizadeh and Varasteh (2024), wild pomegranates were considered as noble source of healthy food. Given the multifunctional, ubiquitous nature of wild edible fruits the present chapter was compiled to introduce wild fruit trees of northern Iran with a focus on providing more detailed information about wild pomegranates.
Geographical Aspects of Northern Iran Northern Iran
is a geographical region encompassing a relatively large and fertile area, located along the southern border of the Caspian Sea and the Alborz Mountains. Upon closer examination of the map of Iran (Fig. 1), one can identify three northern provinces: Golestan, Mazandaran, and Gilan. These provinces all share borders with the Caspian Sea and the Alborz Mountains. The Alborz mountain range extends from the western border with the Republic of Azerbaijan to the eastern border with Turkmenistan (Fig.1).

Programme evaluation requires a systematic sequence of activities through which programme objectives, implementation processes, outcomes and impacts can be examined using credible evidence. This chapter presents the practical process of conducting an evaluation from programme identification through the use of evaluation findings. It explains how evaluators identify the programme and its objectives, determine the appropriate stage and type of evaluation, and assess the technical, financial, operational and time feasibility of the evaluation. Particular attention is given to identifying and consulting key stakeholders because their perspectives, expectations and information are important for a relevant and participatory evaluation process. The chapter further addresses approaches to data collection, sampling, quantitative and qualitative analysis, interpretation and communication of findings. It emphasizes that evaluation findings should not merely be reported but should contribute to programme improvement, decision-making and learning. The chapter also considers the evaluation of evaluation itself, or meta-evaluation, as an important mechanism for assessing the quality, credibility and usefulness of evaluation processes and reports

Evaluation Theory vs Practice

Theory based evaluation is an approach to evaluation (i.e., a conceptual analytical model) and not a specific method or technique. It is a way of structuring and undertaking analysis in an evaluation. A theory of change explains how an intervention is expected to produce its results

What are Evaluation Theories?

Evaluation theories refer to the conceptual frameworks, models, and principles that guide the systematic assessment and analysis of programs, policies, interventions, and other social phenomena. They provide a set of organizing principles and methodologies for evaluating the effectiveness, efficiency, relevance, and sustainability of various interventions and initiatives in different domains, including education, healthcare, social services, environmental protection, and public policy. Evaluation theories draw from various disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, economics, statistics, and management, and they may emphasize different aspects of the evaluation process, such as the role of stakeholders, the criteria for success, the methods for data collection and analysis, and the use of evaluation results.
i. Programme theory
Program theory defines as the mechanisms that mediate between the delivery (and receipt) of the program and the emergence of the outcomes of interest. Programme theory, variously referred to as programme theory, programme logic, theory-based evaluation or theory of change, theory-driven evaluation, theory-of-action, intervention logic, impact pathway analysis, and programme theory-driven evaluation science refers to a variety of ways of developing a causal modal linking programme inputs and activities to a chain of intended or observed outcomes, and then using this model to guide the
evaluation. The term ‘logic model’ is used to refer to the summarized theory of how the intervention works (usually in diagrammatic form) and ‘programme theory evaluation’ is used for the process of developing a logic model and using this in some way in an evaluation. Most approaches to building logic models have focused on simple, linear models, but some have explored how non-linear models might be used to better represent programmes and guide their evaluation. In particular, a number of evaluators have incorporated concepts of complexity in their discussion and use of logic models. 

Project evaluation is a systematic and objective assessment of an ongoing or completed project. The aim is to determine the relevance and level of achievement of project objectives, development effectiveness, efficiency, impact and sustainability. It is a time bound exercise that attempt to access, systematically and objectively, the relevant / performance and success of a programme / project.

5.1 Introduction

Evanescent field absorption spectroscopy is a powerful well-established laboratory technique for chemical analysis. The technique utilizes the evanescent wave penetration at the boundary between two dielectric media in conditions of attenuated total reflection (ATR). One of the media, a thin slab-shaped non-absorbing crystal, is called a waveguide, while the other medium of lower refractive index is the absorbing sample being studied. At each reflection at the boundary of the crystal and the sample, the penetration of the evanescent wave of the guided ray into the absorbing sample gives rise to a reduction of the power propagating in the crystal. The degree of absorption depends on the amplitude of the evanescent field in the sample medium and the number of reflections within the waveguide. The former increases dramatically for incident angles approaching the crystal-sample critical angle while the latter increases with the decrease in the thickness of the waveguide. The number of reflections can also be increased by increasing the length of the waveguide. Thus, to achieve maximum absorption, an unclad optical fiber is well suited for evanescent wave absorption spectroscopy. This is because, unlike the crystal waveguide, the narrow core diameter of the fiber provides a large number of reflections per unit length. Further, the use of an optical fiber to transmit light to a section of its core in contact with an absorbing sample offers the possibility of remote sensing or in-line analysis. These advantages, together with the benefits of simplicity, reliability, flexibility and relatively low cost have motivated a number of research groups all over the world to investigate evanescent wave spectroscopy at the surface of an unclad optical fiber. This chapter will be devoted to the fiber optic sensors utilizing evanescent field absorption spectroscopy.

The change of state of water from solid and liquid to the vapour and its diffusion into the atmosphere is referred as Evaporation. In the meteorology, evaporation is defined as the maximum possible loss of moisture from a wet, horizontal, flat surface exposed to weather which exist in the vicinity of plants.

FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

1. Those affecting water supply at the evaporating surface. i.e., soil and plants including soil storage capacity, rainfall and irrigation and

2. Those affecting energy supply to the evaporating surface like solar radiation.

This chapter is fundamental to agricultural water management, as it explains how water moves from the land surface and plants back into the atmosphere, directly influencing irrigation needs and drought impacts. Water is the lifeblood of agriculture, and its efficient management is paramount for sustainable food production. Understanding how water is lost from the soil and plants to the atmosphere is central to optimizing irrigation and assessing crop water needs. This chapter delves into the concepts of evaporation, transpiration, their combined effect as evapotranspiration, and how these relate to overall crop water use (Fig.5.1).

Definition: Evaporation is the physical process by which liquid water is converted into water vapor and transferred from the land surface (e.g., bare soil, water bodies, or wet plant surfaces) into the atmosphere. It is purely a physical process driven by solar energy and the vapor pressure gradient between the surface and the air.

1. Introduction

Foods available in nature and, in some cases, the products made from it thereof contain quite an amount of water. This water not only adds volume to the food products but also provides a sight for attack by the micro organisms. Also, removal of water becomes essential if this water interferes with the end product chracteristics. There are several processes in food industries which are designed to get rid of this excess water, such processes are called concentration processes. The processes which can remove water from food substances are,- evaporation, freeze concentration and membrane based processes. All these process have their limitations in rendering solid content to the final product (Fig. 1). Perhaps, these limitations can be overcome by combinig the processes.

The objectives that are fulfilled by the concentration processes can be enumerated as follows: