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The arid regions of India, spread over 3,17,090 sq. km account for 12% area of the country. The western Rajasthan carries the onus of nearly 62% of arid area. Dryland farming is the main occupation of the people in Indian arid zone. More than 70% of the population in the region is engaged in dryland farming on more than 90% of cultivable lands. The average farm family in Indian arid zone consists of 6-8 members possessing 4-6 hectares of land. The over-exploited fragile natural resources are predominantly under mixed farming - pastoral as well as arable. Farming is almost entirely rainfed in this zone with low and unstable yields.

Farming system is an integrated set of activities that farmers perform in their farms with available resources and circumstances to maximize the productivity and net farm income on a sustainable basis. The farming system conceptually is a set of elements or components, i.e., soil, water, crops, livestock, labour, capital, energy and other resources that are interrelated and interact among themselves. At the centre of the interaction lies the farmer exercising control and choice regarding the types of results of interaction. The income of cropping alone from small and marginal farm is insufficient now to sustain the farmers family. A judicious mix of any one or more of these enterprises should complement the farm income and help in recycling the farm residues / wastes. The selection of enterprises must be based on the cardinal principles of minimizing the competition and maximizing the complementary between the enterprises. Of late, the researchers on multidisciplinary approach greatly realized and started developing the various farming systems models in accordance with the agro-eco systems zones.

Farming System thus may be defined as a complex interrelated matrix of soil, plants, animals, implements, power, labour, capital and other inputs controlled in part by farming families and influenced to varying degrees by political, economic, institutional and social forces that operate at many levels. The farming system therefore, refers to the farm as an entity of inter-dependent farming enterprises carried out on the farm. The farm is viewed in a holistic manner and the farmers are subjected to many socio-economic, biophysical, institutional, administrative and technological constraints.

Start with a 1:2 molar ratio of vector: insert DNA when cloning a fragment into a plasmid vector. This ratio will vary with other types of vectors, for example, cDNA and genomic cloning vectors. The following example illustrates the conversion of molar ratios to mass ratios for a 3.0kb plasmid and a 0.5kb insert DNA fragment.

Introduction
The integration of bioinformatics into plant breeding has been shaped by several key milestones over the past few decades. Concepts like Breeding 4.0 (Wallace et al.,2018) and, 5G Breeding (Varshney et al., 2020) have gained global prominence, strengthened by the availability of extensive omics data. The advent of DNA sequencing technologies marked a key milestone in this field, catalyzing numerous genome sequencing projects worldwide such as Arabidopsis, rice, tomato, maize, wheat, etc. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) platforms, such as Illumina, PacBio, and Oxford Nanopore, have enabled rapid sequencing of entire plant genomes, facilitating the identification of genetic variations, including single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), insertions, deletions, and structural variants (Deschamps & Campbell, 2010; Fuentes-Pardo et al.,2017). These advancements have significantly improved comparative genomics, enabling researchers to compare the genetic makeup of different plant species or varieties and identify genes associated with agronomic traits, such as yield, disease resistance, and environmental stress tolerance (Khan et al., 2024). As a result, these developments have revolutionized plant genetic research and crop improvement strategies, providing unprecedented opportunities to enhance agricultural productivity (Bellare et al., 2018; Shendure and Ji, 2008).
Bioinformatics has revolutionized plant biology by combining computational and statistical tools to analyze genomes, transcriptomes, proteomes, and metabolomes facilitating insights into genome structure, function, and evolution (Yadav et al., 2015; Saha et al., 2023; Roychowdhury et al., 2023). Genomics, emerged in the 1980s primarily focussing on mapping and sequencing genomes and there after laid the groundwork for functional genomics, which systematically explored gene functions (Hieter and Boguski, 1997; (Jackson et al., 2011). Further, advances in sequencing technologies, such as long-read platforms, have enabled detailed analyses of structural variants in crop genomes, crucial for identifying agronomic traits.
The large volumes of genomic sequence data have allowed researchers to identify genetic markers for crop improvement and candidate genes for trait development. However, the full potential of these genomic sequencing efforts depends on assigning functions to the thousands of genes with unknown roles. Model organisms such as humans, mice, Arabidopsis, rice, tomato, Medicago, and wheat have been instrumental in advancing genomic investigations (Bult, 2006). A notable example is the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana, which has provided a foundation for exploring fundamental biological phenomena using resources such as the TAIR database (Lamesch et al., 2012). Leveraging advanced bioinformatics techniques, researchers have enhanced crop productivity, mitigated diseases, and optimized resource management in agriculture. Advanced approaches like genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and transcriptome analysis continue to refine the understanding of genetic underpinnings, revolutionizing modern agricultural strategies (Mai et al., 2023).

Abstract

FASTA, which stands for “Fast All”, is a sequence alignment tool developed by William R. Pearson and David J. Lipman in 1985. It is commonly used to identify similarities between DNA and protein sequences. FASTA employs a “hashing” strategy to locate matches for short stretches of identical residues with a length of k, referred to as k-tuples or k-tups. This method enables FASTA to quickly search large databases for sequence similarities, making it a popular tool for identifying homologous sequences, predicting gene functions, and analyzing evolutionary relationships. This chapter elaborates some basics of FASTA.

Maintenance

When an animal is being fed for growth, fattening, milk secretion or other productive function, a considerable part of its feed is utilized for supporting body processes which are vital, irrespective of new tissue or product is being formed. This demand for feed is referred to as the “Maintenance requirement”; because it includes the amount needed to keep intact the tissues of animal which is not growing, working or yielding any product. There would be tissue break down with the accompanying loss in weight, leading to undesirable consequences, provided such need for feed is not met.

The fasting catabolism

The fasting animal doing no external work and not producing in any way is still carrying on a variety of internal physiological processes, which are absolutely vital for life. Obviouslythe nutrients required to support theseinternal activities must come from the break down of body tissue itself. This destruction of body tissue is termed as the “Fasting catabolism” and this can be measured in terms of the waste products discarded through the various paths of excretion.

Energy catabolism of fasting

The energy expended in the fasting animal is converted into heat, which can be measured in direct or indirect calorimeter. For measuring fasting catabolism at its minimumvalue, it becomes imperative to eliminate all the influences leading to increase heat production above the minimum expenditure compatible with the maintenance of life in so far as possible. Such a minimum value is called “Basal-metabolism” or BMR.Theconditions essential fora true minimumvalue of fasting catabolism can most nearly be attained in human being are specified as following :

1. Lecithin is an example of
   1. Carbohydrates
   2. Hormones
   3. Vitamins
   4. Phospholipids
2. Which of the following acts as storehouse of energy in body?
   1. Hormone
   2. Vitamins
   3. Fats
   4. All of these

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is omega carbon atom?

Ans: The methyl carbon atom at the distal end of the fatty acid chain is called omega carbon atom

2.    Why mammals can not synthesize essential fatty acid?

Ans: Because of their inability to introduce double bond between the 9th carbon atom and the terminal methyl group of the fatty acid chain.

3.    What is acid value?

Ans: It is defined as the number of milligram of KOH required to neutralize the free organic acids in 1 gm of fat.

4.    What is saponification number?

Ans: It is defined as the number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the free fatty acid and saponify the esterified fatty acids in 1 gm of fat.

5.    What is iodine number?

23.1 Introduction
Various products can also be produced by emulsions that contain fat globules. For instance, cream is produced when milk contains concentrated fat. This cream can be further processed to produce butter, ghee, and butteroil. “Milk fat, ghee, butter oil, anhydrous milk fat, and anhydrous butter oil are fatty products that are exclusively derived from milk or products obtained from milk, or both, through processes that result in the almost complete removal of water and milk solids, not fat.” The method of manufacturing (FSSAI standards) has notably influenced the flavour and physical structure of ghee.

23.2 Types of Fat Rich Dairy Products
23.2.1 Cream or Malayi
“Cream is a yellowish component of milk that naturally rises to the surface when milk is allowed to stand. It is rich in fat globules.” Cream is mechanically separated in the dairy industry. The size of the fat globules is diminished as a result of homogenisation of cream, which renders the product less suitable for whipping.
Cream can be defined as
1. That portion of milk, which is rich in milk fat
2. That portion of milk into which has been gathered and which contains large portion of milk fat
3. When milk fat is concentrated into a fraction of the original milk that portion is called cream.

Assay of Carotene, Tocopherol and Plant Pigments (Method of Astrup et al., 1971). Agricultural University of NORWAY, ÅS-NLH, NORWAY

Introduction

A method which assays the carotene together with chlorophyll a and b and xanthophyll was given by worker (1957, 1958) and this was a successful approach towards a useful routine procedure. Worker’s way of extraction is based on the use of aqueous acetone a technique which was studied by Davidson (1954). The separation is accomplished on an alumina column. Worker (1958) has used a double successive chromatography, once on magnesia and again on alumina, to obtain its separation from the other lipid components. The method developed by Astrup et al. (1971) permits simultaneous assay of tocopherol, carotene and plant pigments using alumina column.

Fat-rich dairy products such as cream, makhan, butter, butter oil and ghee have played a pivotal role in growth and development of dairy industry in India as well as abroad from the time immemorial. The reference of makhan and ghee has been found in old Indian scriptures. Makhan was popularized by Lord Krishna about 5000 years before. In the traditional Indian dietary regimen, milk fat in the form of malai (cream), makhan (freshly churned butter) contributes significantly towards nourishment of people of almost all ages.

Indian dairy industry, over the years, has been converting surplus milk for the manufacture of fat-rich dairy products, especially ghee and butter with skimmilk as a byproduct because of technological and economic reasons. More than one-third of the total milk production is being utilized for the production of ghee and butter wherein milk lipids, the most expensive constituents of milk are conserved and preserved. Milk lipids play many diverse roles, some of which are essential for human health. Many of the desirable flavour and textural attributes of dairy products are due to their lipid components, consequently, butterfat has, traditionally, been highly valued. Significance of fat can also be realized from the fact that the consumer’s perception of food quality is largely based on the perceivable rich taste. Unfortunately, milk lipids are subject to chemical and enzymatic alterations which can cause flavour defects referred to as oxidative and hydrolytic rancidity, respectively. The storage stability of high-fat products is strongly influenced by these changes.

9.1 Introduction

Nanoparticles (NPs) are particulate matter with at least one dimension less than 100 nm (Christian et al., 2008). Although NPs are naturally present in the environment, manufactured NPs may have distinctive surface properties and chemistry in comparison with natural NPs (Handy et al., 2008). Manufactured NPs have a large area-to-volume ratio and size-dependent properties, which impart novel properties and behaviors that make them suitable for nanotechnology applications (Auffan et al., 2009). Range of applications for NPs has brought about a rapid development of the nanotechnology industry.

When a herbicide is applied to the soil, it is subjected to various interactions with soil and surrounding environment which ultimately determines its persistence. Dissipation of these compounds from soil system is by three main processes viz., physical (volatilization, leaching and runoff), chemical (photochemical decomposition, adsorption by organic and inorganic colloids and chemical decomposition) and biological (microbial decomposition and plant uptake) 

1. Physical Processes

a) Volatilisation

Lipids are a diverse group of chemical molecules. They are generally insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Lipids include long-chain hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, fatty acids, and their derivatives, especially, glycerides, phospholipids, glycolipids and sulfolipids. Other compounds like sterols, fatty acid esters of sterols, vitamins A, D, E, and K, carotenoids, and other poly-isoprenoids also are part of the lipids. Oils and fats are mainly triglycerides and neutral molecules. Those in the liquid state at ambient temperatures are called oils while those in the solid state are called fats. Lipids and lipid components have varied uses in the food and non food sectors. Vegetable and animal matter contain a variety of these constituents in different proportions. It is neccessry to evaluate the composition and quality of these constituents from the point of view of their utility.

Procedure: Measurement of smoke point of given oils: Heat the given oils in a deep frying pan till fumes come out from oil. Record the temperature when the fumes come out and noted it as a ‘smoke point’. Cool the oil by keeping oil pan at room temperature. After cooling repeat the heating of same oils 2nd and 3rd time to measure the smoke point and record the observations

Fats are obtained from both animal and vegetable sources. The principal animal fats are cream, butter, egg yolk, the fat of beef, mutton, pork, bone marrow, chicken fat, and codliver oil. Vegetable fats are those derived from fruits and seeds of plant, as olive oil, cottonsed oil, corn oil, peanut oil, soyabean oil and nut oils.

COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FATS

Fats and oils, the most concentrated of fuel foods, were the first of the organic compounds or foods to have their composition determined. They are made up of same three elements which go to produce the carbohydrates, but the oxygen is less in proportion to the carbon. This explains the fact that fat yields more energy per gram than carbohydrates do.

Lipids are a class of compounds that are defined by how they are isolated, rather than by their composition. Lipids are molecules that can be extracted from plants and animals by low polarity solvents such as ether, chloroform, or even acetone. They are not appreciably soluble in water. Fats and the fatty acids from which they are made belong to this group as do oils, waxes and steroids. Hydrolyzable lipids are those that contain a functional group that will react with water. The functional group is usually an ester and the list of compounds includes neutral fats, waxes, phospholipids, and glycolipids. Non- hydrolyzable lipids lack such functional groups and include steroids and fat-soluble vitamins (e.g. A, D, E, and K).

Fats and oils are composed of triacylglycerols. These are compounds prepared by the union of glycerol (1,2, 3-tri- hydroxypropane) and 3 fatty acids to form a triester. Fats and oils belong to a group of biological substances called lipids. Lipids are biological chemicals that do not dissolve in water. They serve a variety of functions in organisms, such as regulatory messengers (hormones), structural components of membranes, and as energy storehouses. Fats and oils generally function in the latter capacity. Fats differ from oils only in that they are solid at room temperature, while oils are liquid. Fats and oils share a common molecular structure. The fats and oils contain three ester functional groups. Fats and oils are esters of the tri- alcohol, glycerol (or glycerine). Therefore, fats and oils are commonly called triglycerides, although a more accurate name is triacylglycerols. Triglyceride molecules contain mostly carbon and hydrogen atoms, with only six oxygen atoms per molecule. This means that fats and oils are highly reduced (un-oxidized). Oils are particularly common in seeds, where the stored energy helps seedlings during germination, until they can exploit solar energy through photosynthesis. Fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms, from 4 to 36, bonded in an unbranched chain. Most of the bonds between carbon atoms are single bonds. If all of these bonds are single bonds, the fatty acid is said to be saturated, because the number of atoms attached to each carbon atom is the maximum of four. If some of the bonds between carbon atoms are double bonds, then the fatty acid is unsaturated. When there is only one double bond, it is usually between the 9th and 10th carbon atom in the chain, where the carbon atom attached to the oxygen atoms is counted as the first carbon atom. If there is a second double bond, it usually occurs between the 12th and 13th carbon atoms, while a third is usually between the 15th and 16th.

Fats are rich sources of energy. Fats provide 2.25 times more available enrgy than carbohydrates. Fats also increase the palatability and reduce the dustiness of feed. Fats and fatty acids decrease the heat increment in the body. Fatty acids are also involved in number of physiological functions of the body. Recently, considerable interest has been shown on studies pertaining to dietary supplementation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in animal feed and their role in animal health and production.

Fatty liver, also known as hepatic lipidosis is a metabolic disorder commonly seen in various animal species. It occurs due to excessive accumulation of fat (lipids) in liver cells (hepatocytes), leading to impaired liver function. This condition is particularly prevalent in dairy cattle, poultry, cats, and occasionally in dogs and other species. Fatty liver can significantly impact health, productivity, and overall well-being. Nutritional management plays a crucial role in both preventing and treating this condition. Fatty liver occurs when the liver’s ability to metabolize and export fat is overwhelmed, leading to fat accumulation. This can happen due to various factors, including: Imbalance in energy metabolism Excess energy intake or inadequate utilization of energy during critical periods (e.g., early lactation in dairy cows) results in fat mobilization to the liver.
Obesity
Overweight animals are more prone to developing fatty liver due to an increased baseline fat deposit.
Nutritional deficiencies
Lack of essential nutrients like choline, methionine, and B vitamins can impair lipid metabolism. 

India’s vast geographical expanse and diverse climatic conditions have led to the development of distinct agro-climatic zones. These zones, as defined by the Planning Commission and ICAR, provide a scientific basis for selecting location-specific farming systems that ensure sustainable productivity, livelihood security, and efficient resource use. The feasibility of farming systems in these zones depends on factors such as rainfall, temperature, soil type, water availability, cropping intensity, and socio-economic conditions. The feasibility of different farming systems significantly depends on the specific agro-climatic zone, which encompasses factors such as temperature, rainfall, soil type, and elevation. India’s vast and varied geography is divided into 15 agro-climatic zones by the Planning Commission. Each zone has specific soil types, climatic conditions, topography, and resource availability. These factors influence the most feasible and sustainable farming systems. Below is a detailed description of suitable farming systems for each zone.
1. Western Himalayan Region (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand)
• Climate: Cold temperate to alpine.
• Feasible Farming Systems:
º Horticulture-based (apple, pear, walnut)
º Agri-horti-pastoral (wheat/barley + fruits + sheep/goat)
º Apiculture and sericulture
• Justification: Hilly terrain and climate favor fruits and small livestock.