eChapters

Flood routing predicts how a flood hydrograph changes as it passes through a river reach or reservoir. Storage, channel geometry, friction, inflow distribution, and outlet conditions generally reduce, delay, or otherwise modify the flood peak. Routing results help forecast downstream water levels, determine reservoir releases, design spillways and channels, issue warnings, and evaluate flood-control alternatives. This chapter introduces the continuity and storage principles underlying flood routing and distinguishes reservoir routing from channel routing. It discusses hydrologic and hydraulic approaches, including level-pool, Muskingum, and related techniques. Attention is also given to inflow and outflow hydrographs, routing coefficients, travel time, attenuation, data requirements, assumptions, calculations, and practical engineering applications.

9.1 Introduction

Flood water which is in the form of a hydrograph when passes down a river section undergoes several changes in its form. There may be some addition of water to the river section when the flood wave passes down the river section. There may be some diversion of water from the section. Thus, depending on the addition or abstraction of water to the incoming flood water, shape of the flood hydrograph in the downstream section may change. Sometimes channel storage and resistance to flow of water in the channel section also affects the shape of the flood hydrograph.

A flood occurs when water exceeds the carrying capacity of a river, stream, drain, gully, or another natural or artificial channel and spreads over adjoining land. Its severity depends on water volume, depth, velocity, duration, timing, and the vulnerability of affected communities. Prolonged inundation can severely damage crops, property, infrastructure, water supplies, and human and animal life. Night-time floods may be particularly dangerous because warnings and evacuation become difficult. This chapter introduces flood occurrence and mechanisms, India’s and the world’s flood history, flood-prone regions, flood types and causes, major consequences, and the responsibilities of Indian flood-control and forecasting agencies.

7.1 Introduction

Flood is an unusually high stage in a river resulted due to high rainfall or snow melt which causes large flow of runoff in it. During flood, the river overflows the banks and inundates the adjoining areas. Flood causes heavy damages to buildings and hydraulic structures besides causing catastrophic loss to human life and property. It causes great economic loss due to disruption of many structures and damage to agricultural fields. Many forest and aquatic lives are affected by the flood. Hundreds of crores of rupees are spent every year to control, forecast and manage the flood.

This chapter portrays flooding as a geohazard that can be managed with ease through simple and effective measures. Flooding is a recurrent geohazard that affects vast lands in India and elsewhere. Unlike many other geohazards, flooding event and probable area to be affected could be predicted with fairly accurate levels and hence, proper safety measures could be taken easily. However, as flash floods could not be predicted and the nature of flooding hazard that it brings in added danger of health hazard, crop damage and cutting off of supply and communication networks, flooding is as serious threat as any other geohazard. Scientifically designed urbanization and flood control measures are suggested for minimizing the potential impacts of flooding.

INTRODUCTION

Flooding is defined as a temporary submergence of a large area (that normally remains dry) under water by overflowing rivers and reservoirs as a result of heavy rains, high winds, cyclones, storm surges, tsunami, melting of snow or dam burst (Arya et al. 2005). The term “temporary submergence” denotes a time period ranging from few hours to about few months depending on type and location of flooding. Although flooding is a natural phenomenon that plays a major role in replenishing wetlands, recharging groundwater and supports agriculture, extreme demands on natural resources due to population growth, people and their property move closer to water bodies

Flooding

Flooding affects both above and below ground ecosystem processes in greenhouses. Below-ground changes may be less obvious, they are as important as the above-ground changes. Soil microorganisms are sensitive to disturbance, and shifts in soil microbial community structure are expected when anaerobic conditions develop from flooding. The useful aerobic microbes are destroyed by flooding. It takes time to built-up their population in the soil to benefit plants. Due to anaerobic condition created by flooding in greenhouse plant roots in soil are not able to breath, function and hence wilting of plants occurs. Flood irrigation in excess create flood like condition in greenhouses at time. Excess water in soils is a major factor affecting plant survival and functioning. In saturated soils, the supply of atmospheric oxygen into the soil is curtailed and various facultative and obligate anaerobic microorganisms use oxidized compounds as electron acceptors for respiration, thus converting them to reduced forms. The reduction and the associated processes influence plant survival, growth and functioning in wetlands. Flood irrigation should always be just wet the soil not flood inviting stagnation of water.

A chain of reactions is initiated upon soil flooding leading to reduced soil redox potential conditions. These reactions include physical, chemical and biological processes that have significant implications on plants growth. Physical processes include restriction of atmospheric gas diffusion in the soil leading to depletion of soil oxygen and accumulation of carbon dioxide. Shortly after flooding, the limited supply of oxygen in soil pore spaces is depleted rapidly by roots, microorganisms, and soil reductants. This process leads to oxygen depletion and reduction in soil oxidation reduction potential followed by a chain of soil chemical changes. The processes that follow include denitrification, reduction of iron, manganese and sulphate, and changing soil pH

I. FILL UPS

1. A _____ is an unbranched, indeterminate inflorescence with pedicellate flowers along the axis.
2. A _____ is a type of raceme with flowers that do not have a pedicel.
3. An _____ is a type of raceme with a short axis and multiple floral pedicels of equal length that appear to arise from a common point.
4. Indeterminate simple inflorescences are generally called _____.
5. Determinate simple inflorescences are generally called _____.
6. A compound raceme is often called a _____.
7. _____ are umbels in which the single flowers are replaced by many smaller umbels called umbellets.
8. _____ is the pollen producing part of a flower, usually with a slender filament supporting the anther.
9. _____ is the part of the stamen where pollen is produced.
10. _____ is the ovule producing part of a flower.

1. INFLORESCENCE

An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches.

1.1. Types of inflorescence

Inflorescences can be simple or compound.

1.1.1. Simple inflorescence

Inflorescence of sessile disc florets forming the capitulum

1.1.1.1. Indeterminate

Indeterminate simple inflorescences are generally called racemose. The main kind of racemose inflorescence is the raceme. The other kind of racemose inflorescences can all be derived from this one by dilation, compression, swelling or reduction of the different axes. Some passage forms between the obvious ones are commonly admitted.

Floral decoration in India has got a historical background spreading over different eras. Admiration of natural beauty, plants and flowers were part of civilization process. Many evidences are there in the paintings, carvings on wall of caves, temples, mosque besides literatural references that flowers were in use in many forms since time immemorial. Every religion, culture, rulers and regimes had great influence on the use of flowers.

At present, flowers are integral part of our daily life. We use flowers in various ways and for many purposes. Loose flowers are used for worship while garlands for decoration purpose during social, institutional, official functions etc. In addition, cutflowers in the form of bouquets are very common in use. Arrangement of flowers in the vase, bowl or any other container is displayed extensively for interior decoration. At present, placing flower vase is very popular in houses, corporate offices, institutes, hotels etc. and is a well established practice.

A floral formula is a numerical representation of various parts of the flower. Such notations use numbers, letters and various symbols to convey significant information in a compact form. They may represent the floral form of a particular species, or may be generalized to characterize higher taxa, usually giving ranges of numbers of organs. It also depicts the symmetry, interrelationship of various floral parts, unisexuality as well as bisexuality in the flower.
Floral formulae were developed at the beginning of the 19th century (Prenner et al., 2010). The first authors using them were Cassel (1820) who first devised lists of integers to denote numbers of parts in named whorls; and Martius (1828). Grisebach (1854) used 4-integer series to represent the 4 whorls of floral parts in his textbook to describe characteristics of floral families, stating numbers of different organs separated by commas and highlighting fusion. Sachs (1873) used them together with floral diagrams, he noted their advantage of being composed of “ordinary typeface”.

Introduction

Flowers provide opportunity to convert them into exquisite value added products directly from fresh flowers like garland, bouquet, flower arrangements or after drying the flowers making different dried flowers products like pot pourri, wreath, painted gourds or after processing like rose water, gulkand, gulroban, perfume, essential oil, insects repellants, cosmetics etc. Beside this a number of pigments like xanthophylls, carotenoids, luteins, anthocyanins etc. which have neutraceutical properties and pharmaceuticals compounds are also prepared from flowers. The value addition results in more acceptable quality products for the domestic and export market and hence ensure high premium to the producers. Moreover, value addition technology can help avoiding wastage during the glut period and farmers involved in the flower cultivation can earn better remuneration. Preparation of value added products helps in employment generation at producer level, wholesaler level or industrial level. It is a good source of income generation. There are various types of value added products which can be prepared either by practice or by obtaining training of making these products. The value added products can be classified into three categories namely:

Introduction

Flowers provide opportunity to convert them into exquisite value added products directly from fresh flowers like garland, bouquet , flower arrangements or after drying the flowers making different dried flowers products like pot pourri, wreath, painted gourds or after processing like rose water, gulkand,gulroban,perfume, essential oil, insects repellants, cosmetics etc. Beside this a number of pigments like xanthophylls, carotenoids, luteins, anthocyanins etc. which have neutraceutical properties and pharmaceuticals compounds are also prepared from flowers. The value addition results in more acceptable quality products for the domestic and export market and hence ensure high premium to the producers.

1. This is fragrant rose variety

   a) Blue Moon

   b) First Red

   c) Gladiator

   d) None

2. Rose belong to family

   a) Amaryllidaceae

   b) Compositae

   c) Rosaceae

   d) None

1. GENERAL FLORICULTURE

Development of Floriculture’ was recommended by Dr. P.P. Trivedi committee.

India ranks 2^nd in flower cultivation next to China.

The production of loose flowers almost tripled between the 8^th Plan and the 11^th Plan.

The annual domestic demand is valued at around 60 billion USD.

About 2,33,000 hectares across the country was used for floriculture, producing 17,29,000 metric tonnes (MT) of loose flowers and 76,732 lakh cut flowers.

India has exported 22,947.23 MT of floriculture products to the world for worth of Rs. 460.75 crores in 2014-15.

The share of exports of dried flowers and plant parts are 45%, flowering plants (22%), fresh foliage (13%), fresh cut flowers (10%), live plants (7%) and bulbs and tubers (3%).

India’s share in global floriculture trade- 0.6%.

USA ranks 17th in per capita cut flowers consumption.

India ranks 2nd in flower cultivation next to China.

India stands 14th in the world in exporting floricultural products, while the Netherlands and Columbia rank 1st and 2nd, respectively

Those plants which are completed their life cycle in a season or a year, is called annuals. Thre are many types of annuals.

1. On the basis of seasons:
   1. Rainy annuals: Balsam, Cock’s comb, Amaranths, Gaillardia, Torenia, Gompherena etc.
   2. Summer annuals: Zinnia, Kochia, Tithonia, Sunflower, Cosmos, Coreopsis.
   3. Winter annuals: Remaining annuals.

The scientific horticulture consists of the following divisions. Among them, which division has impact on environment aesthetically and functionally

A. Fruits         B. Flowers

C. Spices       D. Plantations

World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international body which deals with the “Rules of Trade” between nations on the basis of the agreements negotiated and signed by most of the world’s trading nations. These agreements are essentially contracts that bind governments to keep their trade policies within predefined limits. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters and importers.

The purpose of WTO agreement is to help free flow of trade, serve as a forum for trade negotiations and to serve as a dispute settlement body. There are 5 broad principles of the trading system followed under WTO:

Trade without discrimination

Freer trade, gradually through negotiations

Predictability, through binding

Promotion of fair competition

Encouragement to development and economic reforms.

Introduction

Floriculture or flower farming is the study of growing and marketing flowers and foliage plants. Floriculture includes cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for direct sale or for use as raw materials in cosmetic and perfume industry and in the pharmaceutical sector. It also includes production of planting materials through seeds, cuttings, budding and grafting. In simpler terms floriculture can be defined as the art and knowledge of growing flowers to perfection. The persons associated with this field are called floriculturists.

Worldwide more than 140 countries are involved in commercial Floriculture. The leading flower producing country in the world is Netherlands and Germany is the biggest importer of flowers. Countries involved in the import of flowers are Netherlands, Germany, France, Italy and Japan while those involved in export are Colombia, Israel, Spain and Kenya. USA and Japan continue to be the highest consumers.

Introduction

Floriculture, the branch of horticulture dedicated to the cultivation of flowers and ornamental plants, has gained significant attention and importance due to its multifaceted prospects and scope. It is a captivating blend of art and science, encompassing the nurturing of plants for aesthetic, commercial and even therapeutic reasons. From the meticulous care of delicate blooms to the strategic planning of vast floral displays, floriculture spans a wide spectrum of activities, each contributing to the beauty and functionality of our surroundings. From the meticulous care of delicate blooms to the strategic planning of vast floral displays, floriculture spans a wide spectrum of activities, each contributing to the beauty and functionality of our surroundings. This can range from the production of cut flowers for floral arrangements and bouquets to the cultivation of potted plants for indoor decoration. Whether it’s the striking colors of roses, the delicate petals of orchids, or the lush foliage of ferns, floriculture celebrates the diversity and splendor of the plant kingdom.