eChapters

Floriculture  is  increasingly  regarded  as  a  viable  diversification  from traditional field crops due to increased per unit returns and increasing habit of “saying it with flowers” during all the occasions. All over the world, the floricultural sector is experiencing rapid changes. Opening up to the world, market  in  the  WTO  regime  paving  way  to  free  movement  of  floricultural products worldwide, globalization and its effect on income generation have all  contributed  to  increase  in  per  capita  consumption  of  flowers  in  most countries. Noticeable  feature  of  global  floriculture  is  the  development  and expansion of floriculture in non-traditional areas. Netherlands, Italy, Germany and  Japan  had  strong  tradition  for  growing  and  consumption  of  flowers. The  concept  of  commercial  floriculture  was perpetuated  across  the  world from those regions. New production centres are developing in Latin America, Africa and also in Asia to meet the demand of consuming countries and also to  expand  domestic  market,  commensuration  with  improved  economic conditions  these countries  provide  highly  qualitative  floricultural  products with low cost price which is finding a favourable place in markets of Western Europe, America and Japan. Emergence of new production centres has made floriculture  more  competitive  and  this  in  turn  is benefiting the  ultimate consumers.

Important Points to Remember

ROSE

• Botanical name: Rosa spp.
• Family: Rosaceae
• 2n = 14
• Origin: North Hemisphere (Himalyas)
• Flower colour: Red (commonly)

Floriculture is the aesthetic branch of horticulture which deals not only with the cultivation of ornamentals, annuals, biennials and perennial plants but also with their marketing. Flowers symbolize beauty, purity, peace and love. In India, it is a dynamic and expanding industry showing an impressive annual growth rate.

Classification of Flower Crops

The flowering plants can be classified broadly on the basis of their species, genus, family, plant part used or type of flower plants. They are further classified as cutflowers, cut foliage, turfgrasses, groundcovers, hedges, accents, specimen plants, avenue trees, screens, topiaries, fillers and others.

12.1 Meaning and Definition

A flow chart is a graphical or symbolic representation of a process. Each step in the process is represented by a different symbol and contains a short description of the process step. The flow chart symbols are linked together with arrows showing the process flow direction. This diagrammatic representation can give a step-by-step solution to a given problem. Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields.

6.1. Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Soil: Laboratory Methods

Hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil indicates the ease with which water is transmitted through the soil pores. If a constant water head (h) is maintained on a saturated soil column of length (L) and the volume of water (V) percolating per unit time (t) through per unit cross sectional area (A) to the other end, then according to Darcy’s Law the rate of flow of liquid or flux (q) is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (ΔH/L) across the length of soil column.

7.1 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Soil Laboratory Methods

Hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil indicates the ease with which water is transmitted through the soil pores. If a constant water head (h) is maintained on a saturated soil column of length (L) and the volume of water (V) percolating per unit time (t) through per unit cross sectional area (A) to the other end, then according to Darcy’s Law, the rate of flow of liquid or flux (q) is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (ÄH/L) across the length of soil column.

Flower arrangement is the art of using plant materials and flowers to create an eyecatching and balanced composition or display. Among all art forms, flower arrangements today take as prominent a place. The art engages ones personal involvement in welcoming guests and bringing cheer to the surroundings. It is rightly said, “Flowers are the music of the ground. From earth’s lips spoken without sound. “Professionally designed floral designs, arrangements or artwork incorporate the elements of floral design: line, form, space, texture, and color, and the principles of floral design: balance, proportion, rhythm, contrast, harmony, and unity.

Composition of Arrangements

There are a few compositions of flower arranging that should be considered. Once we understand these we can create so many different styles and our floral designs will have that professional look.

Ikebana

Flowers are generally known as the symbol of beauty around the world. Many people stick flowers in vases to wreath their rooms, houses and other places. Japanese FlowerArrangement is essentially different from the Western style of flower arrangement. The western style involves symmetrical arrangement of flowering plants in a vase whereas, the Ikebana, which means “flowers kept alive”, is much more intricate, complex and asymmetric. This style of flower arrangement is one of the famous cultural traditions of Japan known around the world. Generally, all Japanese flower arrangement styles are lumped together as ikebana but we cannot say they are all the same. Ikebana is a disciplined art form in which nature and humanity are brought together. Though it is a creative expression, it has certain rules governing its form. The main rule is that all the elements used in construction must be organic, be they branches, leaves, grasses, or flowers. The artist’s intention behind each arrangement is shown through a piece’s colour combinations, natural shapes, graceful lines and the usually implied meaning of the arrangement. They arrange flowers to recreate nature in miniature to see individual flowers which have been left behind. Ikebana is like one of the ways to communicate with nature. Another aspect present in ikebana is its employment of minimalism. That is, an arrangement may consist of only a minimal number of blooms interspersed among stalks and leaves. The structure of a Japanese flower arrangement is based on a scalene triangle delineated by three main points, usually twigs, considered in some schools to symbolize heaven, earth and man and in others sun, moon, love & earth. The container is also a key element of the composition and various styles of pottery may be used in their construction. Over time, the ways and styles have changed but there is still the basic idea of ikebana remain same.

Definition: Flower arrangement may be defined as the art of organizing and grouping together flowers and plant materials to achieve harmony of form, colour and texture.

Types of flower arrangements

A. Japanese or oriental/eastern type: Japanese flower arrangements also called ‘Ikebana’ (Ikebana, also called Kado). Emphasis is given on spiritual and religious background and only few flowers are used. “Ikenabo” was the first school of Ikebana, meaning “the arrangement of flowers of the hermitage along a pond” which was started by Buddhist monk Semmu around A.D. 621. Ikebana was practiced by Buddhist monks as a concentration exercise (Dhyana). There are three basic lines that were followed in Ikebana namely, Shin meaning heaven is generally a central vertical line of the main branch in the arrangement. Whereas, Soe meaning man is the secondary branch symbolizes human kind. Ikebana artists position Soe to grow forward from the Shin line at a right angle. Third is, Hikae, symbolizes earth is arranged at the bottom, opposite the first two elements. In India, Ikebana was introduced during sixties and gradually becomes popular.

Flowers of the garden are brought indoors to enjoy the beauty. Fresh flowers are arranged in various styles according to one’s choice. There are two major and distinct styles of arranging fresh flowers, namely the European and the Japanese. Both the styles are greatly influenced by the place where they have been originated. Flowers are also dried and used for different arrangements. Fresh flowers are used as ornaments and also for making floral patterns on the floor called Rangoli.

1. INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE

Flower arrangement is a very old art. In India, the flowers have been earlier arranged in temples and during festivities. The first rules of ikebana were laid down in Japan more than a thousand years ago. Flowers have been widely used for interior decoration, but they were cut from the garden and simply massed into water-filled containers to brighten the home. The beauty of the display relied upon the blooms themselves rather than the aesthetic appeal of the design. Even at homes and venues of festivals/functions/on auspicious occasions, flowers are used in a big way in the form of garlands, wall hangings, and floor decorations. Flower arrangements grace table tops, window sills, corners, fire places, and so on to suit the occasion.

Flower arrangement may be defined as the art of organizing and grouping together plant materials (flowers, foliage, fruits, twigs etc) to achieve harmony of form, colour and texture, thereby adding cheer, life and beauty to the surroundings.

Various types of arrangements are chosen, as appropriate to the area and occasion. Medium sized ‘round’ arrangements are often provided at the guest relations executives’ desk in the lobby and on coffee tables in the lounges. In most five-star hotels, one can see huge, spectacular arrangements in the loggies. Table arrangements for conferences must be low so that guests may see over them. At informal banquets, large arrangements may be seen. At wedding banquets, wall arrangements using gerberas are very popular, now a days. On special occasions and festivals, a large amount of flowers is required for making up various types of arrangements. The extent to which flowers are used in hotel interiors depends on the degree of luxury provided, the number of special functions held.

The housekeeper is responsible for all flower arrangements and their placement. Simple arrangements such as a bud in a vase can be done. Alternatively, flower arrangements may be provided on contract, in which case the arrangements are brought in and taken away at agreed times and little or no floral work is carried out on the premises. Arrangements like running water, containers, buckets, vases, scissors and flower pots are important.

I. General information

1. Japanese flower arrangement is called as Ikebana
2. Meaning for Ikebana is flowers kept alive
3. Western style of flower arrangement involves symmetrical arrangement of flowering plants in a vase
4. Ikebana style possess asymmetric flower arrangement
5. Tatebana is a type of flower arrangement in which flowers are placed in standing arrangement and are of tall nature
6. Basic lines of Japanese flower arrangement are heaven, man and earth
7. ‘Shin’ in Japanese flower arrangement represents Heaven
8. ‘Soe’ in Japanese flower arrangement represents Man

Introduction

Flowers are the most fascinating objects in the world and many poems are written glorifying them. They are associated with mankind from the dawn of civilization. Flowers are an integral part of our day to day life and they find a place in worshiping, religious and social functions, wedding, interior decoration and self adornment. Flowers are used to convey the human feelings. To say it with flowers is very common in western culture. Emergence of a strong middle class and changing life style has created a great demand for cut flowers in India.

This chapter introduces flower forcing and crop regulation as techniques for manipulating flowering time according to market demand and seasonal requirements. It explains photoperiodism, vernalization, temperature, florigen, plant growth regulators and physiological mechanisms involved in flowering. Mechanical, chemical and environmental methods are discussed, along with crop-specific approaches for chrysanthemum, marigold, lotus, jasmine, gladiolus, rose, lilium and tulip. The chapter demonstrates how controlled flowering can improve market timing, reduce wastage and increase grower income.

Introduction

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is an important fruit crop of hot arid region of the India. It is grown commercially in the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. India is one of the largest producers of pomegranate in the world. The pomegranate area in arid region is increasing at faster rate due to its incessant demand, drought hardy nature, low cost management and wider adaptability to arid soils. In Rajasthan it is mainly grown in Jaipur, Ajmer, Alwar, Tonk, Sriganganagar, Tonk, Pali, Kota, Jalore, Banswara, Sawai Madhopur, Bhilwara, Jhunjhunu and Sirohi districts in 12,000 ha area (Rathi, 2017). The pomegranate plants flower and provide fruits throughout the year. In Rajasthan pomegranate is harvested in all three seasons during March-April, Aug.-Sep. and Nov.-Dec. However, it needs to be forced into rest period for prolific harvest at a given time. The basic objectives of flower regulation in pomegranate is to manipulate the natural flowering and fruiting in such a way that it produce high yield of quality fruits in desired season with sustainable use of farm resources. Transition of flower from vegetative phase to reproductive phase is critical phase in pomegranate flowering, which determine production efficiency. The differentiations of vegetative tissue to reproductive tissue decide flowering intensity and production efficiency. Withholding of irrigation (moisture stress), plant growth substances, nutrient content along with canopy management are major horticultural interventions for flower regulation which influence flowering. It is based on principles that pomegranate bears three kinds of flowers namely hermaphrodite, intermediate and male flowers (Fig.1) on both new and old growth in three flushes i.e. ambe bahar (Feb.-March), mrig bahar (June-July) and hasta bahar (Sep.-Oct.).

INTRODUCTION

Seed is one of the most vital and important inputs for increasing agricultural production. Commercial flower seed production is an international business involving highly specialized growers. Compared with the production of seeds of cereals, pulses oilseed even vegetable seeds, it is done on a relatively small scale. However, a large number of species are being produced under very different cultural conditions. It seems to have great scope for expansion in developing countries like India, especially under northern India climatic zones having favourable growing conditions, skilled and cheap labour.

Annual flowers like petunia, coreopsis, helichrysum, phlox, nasturtium, marigold, gaillardia, salvia, ice plant, verbena, nemesia, pansy, poppy, larkspur, chrysanthemum, etc. have been widely used for seed production. After release of a variety its seed have to be multiplied in sufficient quantity which takes 3-4 generations before it reaches to the farmers for commercial use. The Indian seed programme largely adheres to the limited generations system for seed multiplication in a phased manner. The system recognizes three generations namely breeder, foundation and certified seeds and during multiplication cycle care has to be taken so that variety does not degenerate but maintains its original characteristics.

Seed production of flower has undergone unrestricted revolutionary growth in term of number of crops and their varieties as well as production. This phenomenal development is the result of technological advancement in the production of flower seed and development in the area of production, packaging, handling, transportation and marketing of flower and ornamental plants all over the world. The world germplasm contains more than 1500 different varieties of flowers and ornamental crops. Each species of flower grown for seed has its own specific time, culture, problem of pollination and harvesting and storage requirements. Mild climate with moderate rainfall favour the growth and development of most flower and ornamental crops.

Production of seeds of annual flower is having immense impetus as regards the diversification in floribusiness. The flower seed industry is truly international, operating in many countries in the world. Large quantities of annual flower seeds are required both by developed and developing countries adding to the beauty of private and large gardens and also for cut flower production. Annual flower are indispensable in respect of beautification of gardens. In the world, many nurseries are engaged in the production of seed of seasonal flowers and are having a blooming business. The great diversity of flower seed crops is fascinating facet of the world seed industry and they are of high value and low volume in contrast to the high volume and low value seeds. The varied agroclimatic condition existing in India provides a vast scope for the production of a wide range of flower seeds of both tropical and temperate origin. With the availability of relatively inexpensive human labour, technical expertise, and other material, it is possible to organize a strong flower seed production programmed exclusively for export purpose.

INTRODUCTION

Seed is one of the most vital and important inputs for increasing agricultural production. Commercial flower seed production is an international business involving highly specialized growers. Compared with the production of seeds of cereals, pulses oilseed even vegetable seeds, it is done on a relatively small scale. However, a large number of species are being produced under very different cultural conditions. It seems to have great scope for expansion in developing countries like India, especially under northern India climatic zones having favourable growing conditions, skilled and cheap labour.

1. CUT FLOWERS

1.1. Common name, scientific name and family

I. FILL UPS

1. The botanical name of carnation is _____.
2. The family of carnation is _____.
3. The botanical name of chrysanthemum is _____.
4. The family of chrysanthemum is _____.

Seed is defined as “Fertilized and ripened ovule, consisting of the plant embryo, varying amounts of stored food material and a protective outer seed coat”. It is one of the most vital and important inputs for increasing production of crops. Commercial flower seed production is an international business involving highly specialized growers. Demand of flower seed production increased due to recent advances in commercial production of bedding plants, plug production technology, increased area of gardening, flower growing in home gardens and cut flowers with highly viable seeds and very high percentage of uniform seedlings. It seems to have great scope for expansion in developing countries like India, especially under north Indian climate having favourable growing conditions, skilled and cheap labour.

The world germplasm contains more than 1500 different varieties of flowers and ornamental crops. Each species of flower grown for seed has its own specific time, culture, problem of pollination and harvesting and storage requirements. Growing flower from seed is an important component of commercial flower production and their uses in landscape gardening.