eChapters

Synonyms : Aphthous fever; Contagious aptha;  Panzootic aptha; Vesicular aptha.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an acute, highly communicable viral disease affecting cloven hoofed animals, both domesticated and wild. It is the most contagious disease known in the animal kingdom. It is characterized by vesicular eruptions in the epithelium of the buccal cavity, tongue, nares, muzzle, feet, teats and udder.

A footnote is a notation at the bottom of the page in a printed document. Footnotes are usually presented in smaller print than the dominant text, and they are used for a variety of purposes. The “foot” in “footnote” refers to the fact that the notation is located in the “footer” or “bottom” of the document. A similar concept is the endnote, a note which is provided at the end of a document, rather than at the bottom of a specific page. When a text has footnotes, they are indicated with various symbols or superscript numbers. The asterisk symbol, *, is a common symbol for footnotes, but a variety of symbols including daggers, †, may be used. In a text with a lot of footnotes, numbers are usually used to indicate footnotes, so that the reader can keep track of what is going on. Endnotes are typically indicated with numbers, to make it easier for people to look them up.

Different style manuals have different rules about using footnotes, and it is important to follow style guidelines when submitting material for publication. Because footnoting can get very complicated, most style guidelines devote at least a few pages to the footnote. Some people avoid using footnotes at all, while others relish footnotes, because footnotes provide a great degree of freedom when they are used well.

Forage crops are plant species used to feed domestic animals (such as cattle, sheep, goat, pig, and poultry). Both cultivated and wild plants can serve as forage. The domestic animals feed on forages either by grazing or stall feeding (cut fodder eaten in stalls).

Grazing, that is pasturing of animals, is cheaper and allows production of both livestock and dairy produce at a lower cost because no expense is involved in growing, cutting, transporting or feeding. In North and South America, Australia, New Zealand, and in many other temperate countries pastures are widespread and popular because sufficient land is available. While land is cheap and plentiful, labour is scarce and expensive; hence management of natural, and in recent years sown pastures has received much attention.

Until about fifty years ago, the natural grasslands in the Western countries met the minimum needs of the farmers and grassland management was operated at a level comparable to subsistence agriculture of many developing countries. In other words, emphasis was laid on exploitation of natural productivity of the grassland, using a low level of management based on minimum use of inputs like chemical fertilizers. However, it was soon realized that productivity of native grasslands will have to be greatly improved if the high demands for meat and milk were to be adequately met.

In India, however, out of a total cultivable area of about 131.11 million ha less than 2 per cent is utilized for forage crops because feeding the large human population takes the first preference for land use to produce grain and cash crops. It is, therefore, necessary to intensify efforts, particularly in over-populated countries, for a more efficient production of high yielding forage crops to get maximum return out of minimum land.

Forage harvesting is more complex as compared to grain crops. Forage crop is of great bulk and mass, containing 70-80% water when first harvested. For storage it must be dried, either naturally or artificially, to a safe moisture content of about 20 to 25%. Due to low product value it limits the economic feasibility of mechanization of harvesting operation. The mowers are used to cut the crop and windrow in the field, which is manually collected for further chopping. The forage harvester consists of a combination of plant-cutting unit and a chopping unit and is called field forage harvester. The field forage harvester performs the functions of both row binder and silage cutter, as it severs the standing stalks from the ground and chops them into silage in one continuous operation in the field. It can be grouped into two according to the mechanism used to cut the crop viz. field choppers and flail harvesters.

Introduction

Foraminifera or forams for short are the most abundant, diverse and widely distributed Protists in marine realm. They are found in all marine environments, from the inter-tidal to the deepest ocean trenches, and from the tropics to the poles (Todo et al., 2005). In some places, foraminifera are so abundant that the sediment on the bottom is mostly made up of their shells. For example, tourists from all over the world get attracted to the pink sands of Bermuda. These sands get their colour from the shells of Homotrema rubrum which has pink to red-colored shells. Living representatives of foraminifera provide ecological data and their mineralized tests are a geochemical record of palaeoclimatic conditions.

SCAPULA

OX: It is a flat, triangular bone situated on the antero-lateral part of the thorax. It is directed obliquely downward and forward. It has two surfaces, three borders and three angles.

The lateral surface is traversed by the scapular spine which divides it into the supraspinous and the infraspinous fossae. The spine is rough and tuberous in the middle and is prolonged downwards to form the acromion process (Fig.2.1). The medial surface presents subscapular fossa and its upper part presents anteriorly a triangular rough area and posteriorly a rough line (Fig.2.2).

Hydrometeorology forecasting is limited to forecasting of occurrence of rainfall to a greater extent. Although several countries all over the world have developed and established hydrometorological forecasting with focus on occurrence of floods and droughts, still there is very limited success. Floods are associated with occurrence of continuous heavy rainfall due to movement of low-pressure systems like cyclones and depression overflow into rivers, reservoirs and breaching of bunds. In countries like India, the floods occur on the average in 70 lakh hectors of area and the economic loss due to floods and expenditure on relief operations mounting year after year besides loss of life. Foods occur at all of a sudden leaving little time for planning mitigation or rescue operation. Flood forecasting in based on impact assessment of heavy rainfall assessments to identify the exact area that is likely to be affected. It requires more intensive research. Forecasting of droughts is still an area of serious concern. There is need to strengthen regional capabilities to develop forecasting techniques for occurrence of flood and droughts through proper analysis of historical data in conjunction with meteorological forecasts and remote sensing data. Though flood alerts are issued, the identification of exact area and the extent to which flood impacts are not very clear most of the times heavy rainfall warnings are not just sufficient until and unless the vulnerable areas can be clearly specified. The medium range forecasting will be extremely useful for issuing flood alerts.
14.1. Forecasting Droughts
Long range forecasting of seasonal rainfall can indicate the possibility of receiving excess or deficit rainfall over larger regions. In India, there is considerable progress in development of long range forecast of Southwest monsoon rainfall. This forecast also indicating the regions which may get surplus or deficit rainfall and for indifferent parts of a given region as well. However, there is serious dearth of local expertise to further analyse and interpret the long-range forecast for a given area on the basis of local climate data. The advantages of reliable long-range forecast are still unexpected. Almost one fifth of the area in India gets affected by draught most of the years. The drought affects are more severe in arid and semi arid regions. Prediction of occurrence of drought and its intensity, period of occurrence and the areas to be affected by drought is very important. During recent years, there is considerable increase in the occurrence of droughts due to climate change which is attributed mainly to atmospheric pollution. The physics of the pollution is consistent and not the policies support in handling hydrometerological disasters. There are instances where in flood and droughts occurred in the same

Introduction

There are forty different edible oilseeds which can be used for edible and non-edible purposes. Out of which nine oilseeds are extensively used for edible and non edible purposes. The oilseeds such as groundnut (peanut), sunflower, sesame, soybean, rapeseed-mustard, niger and safflower are generally used for edible purposes and castor and linseed are used for non-edible purposes. Plants are the main source for 71 percent of edible oil. Some oil crops such as groundnut (peanut) and sesame can be used directly as food and edible oil, but others are mainly processed to obtain oil, and oil cake or meal (Hetje, 1989). The oil crops are grown all over the world (Girish Kumar, 2012). Area under cultivation of edible oilseeds in 2020 was 27.14 million hectares. The total production was 33.22 million tonnes with the productivity i.e. yield per hectare of 1025 kilogram per hectare in India (Ministry of Statistics). India is the world’s largest importer of edible oil (Santosha, et. al., 2017) and the import of edible oil in 2020 was 93.37 million tonnes.

Disease Forecasting

Definition

Forecasting involves all the activities in ascertaining and notifying the grower of community that conditions are sufficiently favourable for certain diseases, that application of control measures will result in economic gain or on the other hand, and just as important that the amount expected is unlikely to be enough to justify the expenditure of time, energy and money for control. The above statement made explicit distinction between positive forecast and negative forecast and both have value for growers as well as society in general.

Positive forecast: Employs need based chemical sprays, provides adequate protection to crop and reduces damage to environment.

Negative forecast: Avoids unnecessary chemical sprays, no risk to the crop health and no disruption of environment.

This chapter introduces the biological and physiological foundations of forest ecosystems, focusing on the structure, growth, development, adaptation, and survival of trees. It examines tree growth and development, photosynthesis, respiration, water transport, nutrient uptake, and plant responses to environmental stresses. The chapter also explores forest biodiversity, forest–atmosphere interactions, forest ecology, microbiology, entomology, and pathology. Particular attention is given to physiological, morphological, and anatomical responses of woody plants to drought, flooding, temperature extremes, salinity, and other abiotic stresses. These concepts provide a scientific basis for understanding tree health, forest productivity, adaptation, conservation, and sustainable forest management.

1. Term biotechnology was coined by_____________. (Karl Ereky)
2. Applied use of molecular biology and recombinant DNA technology is _______. (Biotechnology)
3. Bacteria are present everywhere except in_____________. (Distil water)
4. The branch of science dealing with the study of microbes is known as _______. (Microbiology)
5. The unique properties of each amino acid are determined by its particular_____________. (R-groups)
6. Optical isomerism arises from the presence of a/ an_____________ atom. (Asymmetric carbon)
7. In the breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid,_____________ enzyme catalyses the successive steps. (Eleven)
8. _____________ plants are used to accumulate pollutants from soil thus clears soil from pollutants. (Phytoremediation)
9. _____________ contains only one type of nucleic acid. (Virus)

7.1 Introduction

The rapid population and industrial growth experienced beginning in the middle part of this century has led to spiraling increases in the demand for forest wood. Historical data reveal that there was a 159.6% increase in overall wood production between 1970 and 1993. Wood is defined simply as wood in the rough, and includes trees felled for any purpose. The majority of total wood production has been for use as fuel wood and charcoal, much of which is harvested by villagers, and to some degree urban squatters.

Since 1970, there has been a 160% increase in fuel wood and charcoal production. The largest portion (104%) occurred between 1970 and 1980, which may be attributed to the introduction of fuel wood species earlier, during the Second Five Year Plan period. Looking at the decades to come, the demand for fuel wood is likely to continue growing in pace with future increases in population, which is growing at the rate of 24 % per decade. It is estimated that by the year 2010, demand for fuel wood and charcoal will exceed 33 million cubic meters (FAO, 1993). Since there is expected to be little further change in the area under potential productive forests, there will be an increasing probability of a shortage of wood production in India (Planning Commission, 1992).

1. _____________ is the main source of energy for the earth. (Sun)
2. The major cause of ‘Minamata’ disease in Japan was due to pollution by_____________. (Mercury)
3. _____________ method in water analysis is used for the quantitative estimation of dissolved oxygen. (Modified Winkler’s method)
4. Systematic scientific study of fresh water ecosystem is called as_____________. (Limnology)
5. The Earth Summit held in 1992, was organised at_____________. (Rio de Janeiro)
6. The altitude of troposphere in atmosphere is about_____________ kilometre. (Upto 11 km)
7. Bhopal gas tragedy took place in the year_____________. (1984)
8. The unit of noise pollution is measured in_____________. (Decibel)
9. Most important mitigation strategy for reducing global warming and climate change is _____________. (Carbon sequestration)

1. An imaginary line joining the points of equal elevation on the surface of the earth represents_____________. (Contour lines)
2. The vertical distance between consecutive contours lines is called_____________. (Contour interval)
3. When measured with a compass, the line of sight that run midway between due North and due West has a bearing of_____________. (N 45 degree W)
4. A survey of a large area which consider the earth’s curvature is called a _____________ survey. (Geodetic)
5. The distinctive feature of topographic maps is the_____________ of the land. (Shape or Contour)
6. The colour used to depict fence lines and important roads on a topographic map is _____________ and_____________. (Red and black)
7. A surveyor’s chain is divided into links and each link is_____________ long. (0.66 feet)
8. A body of water on a topographic map is presented by_____________ colour. (Blue)
9. On a topographic map a ploughed field would be sown as_____________ colour. (White)

1. The Indian Institute of Forest management is located at_____________(Bhopal)
2. First forest policy in independent India was enacted in_____________(1952)
3. A plan of operations for the management of the forest is known as_____________. (Working plan)
4. _____________ are the yields harvested as a matter thinning operation. (Intermediate yields)
5. Indian Wildlife Protection Act was enacted in the year_____________.(1972)
6. The present National Forest Policy envisages having_____________percent of forest and tree cover. (33%)
7. Forest conservation act was enacted in the year_____________. (1980)
8. Indian forest act was enacted in the year_____________. (1927)
9. Density of tree in a forest stand is normally expressed as__________________________. (Basal area of the stand in square feet.)