eChapters

Introduction
Freshwater pearl farming is an emerging and promising sector within India’s aquaculture industry, offering significant potential for economic growth and sustainability. As the country modernizes its agricultural and aquacultural practices, the cultivation of freshwater pearls presents a lucrative opportunity for farmers, particularly in regions where traditional agriculture faces challenges. Recognizing its importance, the Indian government has integrated pearl farming into its broader Blue Revolution initiative, which seeks to enhance the fishing sector and improve livelihoods through sustainable practices.
China and Japan are the main producers of freshwater and marine pearls, respectively, whereas China is the world’s biggest producer of pearls, including both marine and freshwater pearls, with 3540 tonnes produced, accounting for 98% of global pearl production. Bangladesh, Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam, have recently begun both research and industrial-scale programs in response to the worldwide commerce potential of farmed freshwater pearls (Fassler, 1994). The history of pearl farming in India dates back to 1969 with the stablishment of the Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture (CIFA), which initiated the cultivation of freshwater mussels for pearl production. This effort has gained momentum over the years, with states like Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan becoming key players in the industry. Farmers in these regions are increasingly adopting pearl farming as a viable and profitable alternative to
conventional agriculture. India is home to over 50 species of mussels found in various freshwater ecosystems.When a foreign body becomes lodged within the mantle (the skin) of pearl mussels or oysters, the mantle secretes a nacreous substance in response to the irritation. This process results in the formation of layer-by-layer nacre coating over the intruding object. Nacre consists of
80-90% calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and a protein called Conchiolin. As this sector develops, freshwater pearl farming not only promises to contribute to the economic growth of local communities but also positions India as a competitive player in the global pearl market. By addressing existing challenges and continuing to support innovation and education, the future of freshwater pearl farming in India looks increasingly bright.

Introduction

Majority of the commercially important freshwater prawns belongs to the genus Macrobrachium of family Palaemonidae. Among the commercially important freshwater prawns of India the most important cultivable species at present is the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii due to its superior cultivable attributes such as fast growth rate, large size, wide range of salinity tolerance, hardiness and compatibly to grow with carps. The species enjoys good consumer preference and domestic as well as export market demand. Freshwater prawns are cultured in freshwater or low saline brackish water (salinity <10 ppt) and can be cultured either alone (monoculture) or in combination with fishes such as carps, tilapia and milkfish (polyculture). Freshwater prawn culture can be carried out in earthen ponds, cement cisterns, in pens or in cages. However, most of the operations are being carried out in earthen ponds.

1. To which family freshwater prawn belong?

 a) Arthropoda b) Crustacea

 c) Palaemonidae d) Malacostraca

 2. Scientifc name of freshwater prawn is .........

 a) Penaeus monodon b) Scylla serrata

 c) Macrobrachium rosenbergii d) Metapenaeus monoceros

 3. Freshwater prawn is also known as .........

 a) Giant river prawn b) Scampi

 c) Banana prawn d) Both a & b

 4. Identification features of freshwater prawn are .........

 a) Presence of grey and longitudinal streaks of light and dark colour

 b) The largest pereiopod of adult male is dark blue.

 c) The eggs of berried female are yellow in colour

 d) All of these

1. Web Based Services

People can reach the web, which is short for "World Wide Web," which is a huge network of papers and tools that are all linked together. The web, which was created by Tim Berners-Lee in the late 1980s, changed the way people around the world share and receives information.

The growth of technology has had an impact not only on the formats and sources of the information, but also on the manner in which library services are provided and the locations where they are provided. A portion of libraries and the resources they provide have been relocated to the digital realm created by the Internet. The web works on a client-server model: web computers (clients) ask web servers for web pages and other data and then show them. There are connections between the text, pictures, movies, and apps that make up these tools.

Web development is based on key tools like HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), CSS (Cascading Style Sheets), and JavaScript, which make it possible to make web pages that look good and let you interact with them. Over time, improvements like flexible web design (which makes sure that websites work on all devices) and web APIs (which let different software systems share data) have made the web experience even better.

Extension workers are required to visit farm homes as a fundamental aspect of effective Extension work. These visits are essential for building trust and securing the cooperation and friendship of farm families, especially in areas where the value of educational programs is not fully understood, where group meetings are uncommon, or where cultural norms prevent women from meeting publicly. As an Extension worker, reaching all members of the community involves employing various methods. While individual visits may not reach as many people as other approaches, there are occasions where only a personal visit will suffice. Words can be misunderstood, but a friendly smile, genuine empathy, or practical assistance are universally understood. It is crucial for Extension workers to be liked by families, as this acceptance is necessary for the families to accept their recommendations. Establishing rapport takes time; understanding local customs and observing social niceties during visits can significantly impact their success. For example, sharing tea with a family can be a critical gesture.

1. Introduction
The term “plastic” is derived from the Greek word “Plasticos" whichmeans to be capable of molding into various sizes and shapes. Daily usedsynthetic plastics are categorized based on their physical and chemicalproperties, such as thermoplastic and thermosetting. (i) Thermoplastics: Astheir names suggest, thermoplastic polymers melt and turn into a plastic orrubbery state when exposed to heat. They have various numbers of polymericchains and are the most widely used plastics in day-to-day life. Examples ofthermoplastics are Polystyrene(PS), Polyvinylchloride (PVC), Polypropylene(PP), Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Polyethylene (PE) etc. (Massy,2017), (Sharma et al., 2017). (ii) Thermosetting polymers: As the namesuggests, they set or harden permanently when heated (Massy, 2017). Due totheirstrong crosslinked structure, they are non-recyclable polymers. Examplesinclude Polyurethanes(PUR), Phenol formaldehyde, Melamine formaldehyde,and Polyester Resin (PR) (Sharma et al., 2017). Different polymers and theirapplications are illustrated in Fig. 1.

Introduction

No revolution occurs without disruption. Its effects break down traditions, behavior, relationships, ways of thinking, and methods of education. (Barreiro, 2021) throughout history, from the hunter-gatherer era to the present day humanity has experienced multiple industrial revolutions impacting both social and economic domains. The latest industrial revolution, which has ushered in digital transformation and enhanced productivity at reduced costs, introduces a new lifestyle distinct from our traditional daily routines. It also aims to foster a more sustainable overall environment. (Javaid et al., 2022).

The rise of Industry 4.0 is fueled by both rapid technological advancements and various social and economic factors. Central technologies propelling Industry 4.0 include wearable, augmented reality, simulation, autonomous vehicles and robots, additive manufacturing, distributed ledger systems like block chain, big data analytic, mobile computing, and cloud computing. These technologies influence and facilitate the development of new and innovative business models. (Industry 4.0 Implications for Higher Education Institutions 2019)

The advent of Industry 4.0, characterized by the integration of advanced technologies has revolutionized various sectors, including higher education. As these technologies reshape industries, they also redefine educational paradigms, creating a more interconnected, efficient, and personalized learning environment. This transformation, known as Education 4.0, responds to the demands of the Fourth Industrial Revolution by preparing students with the skills and knowledge necessary to thrive in an increasingly digital and automated world.

Introduction
Wastewater management has emerged as a critical environmental concern, posing severe threats to ecosystems, human health, and animal life due to  inadequate treatment and disposal systems. Various technologies have been employed to manage wastewater effectively, among which biological treatment techniques have gained widespread acceptance. These methods are  favoured for their affordability, operational simplicity, minimal reliance on chemicals, lower energy consumption, and eco-friendly characteristics (Smith and Brown, 2020). Among biological treatment processes, both aerobic and anaerobic methods are extensively utilized, with specific focus on Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB), Expanded Granular Sludge Blanket (EGSB), and UASB-aerobic digester reactors. Comparative analyses of these approaches highlight their treatment efficiencies, advantages, drawbacks, and operational constraints. Additionally, the integration of aerobic and anaerobic treatment systems, particularly the UASB-aerobic digester combination, has shown promising results in optimizing wastewater treatment (Jones et al., 2021).
In many underdeveloped and developing regions, inadequate wastewater management has led to severe sanitation challenges, exacerbating health risks and facilitating the spread of waterborne diseases. The lack of proper wastewater treatment, combined with deficient healthcare infrastructure and inadequate housing, further aggravates the situation. Wastewater typically contains high concentrations of biodegradable pollutants such as Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), which, if discharged untreated, contribute significantly to environmental degradation (Lee and Wang, 2019). Both organic and inorganic contaminants originating from domestic, industrial, and agricultural sources play a major role in water pollution. In regions suffering from water scarcity, the reuse of treated wastewater is an essential strategy for water conservation and sustainability (WHO, 2022).

3.1 Introduction

Women are the backbone of the family. God gave her all the power to give birth, raise the children, do all the household chores, and balance the professional work. But we forget that women are also human beings, not machines. They can’t work 24x7 they also need rest as well as proper nutrition. Women in ancient India were very powerful in terms of decision-making, political opinion, education, etc, but later on, the situation of women deteriorated. In the middle era, the situation was at its worst: women were being treated badly by the men in their own families. Currently, the situation is turning better. Women are being treated equally now times but it is not the best scenario we can have. There is still much scope in this field where equal wedges and a good environment can be provided to the women.

During the last 21 years, the scientists and scholars of the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) have been working on the design and implementation of projects which could have a large extrapolation domain in respect of imparting a pro-nature, pro-poor, pro-women and pro-sustainable livelihood orientation to technology development and dissemination. I would like to write about a few of the MSSRF initiatives, which have now become state, national and global programmes.

Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana: Strengthening the role of women in agriculture

MSSRF initiated the Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra in 2007 for empowering women farmers, including the widows of farmers who had committed suicide, in areas related to enhancing the productivity, profitability and sustainability of small-scale rain-fed farming. The empowerment measures incorporated access to technology, credit, inputs and market.

9.7.1. Function

The front axle is the unit on which the front wheel is mounted. This wheel is an idler wheel by which the tractor is steered in various directions. The function is to assist the steering and support the tractor. It is a rigid tubular or I-section steel construction, pivoted at the centre. The pivot pin is housed on bushings on a support bolted to the front of the engine. As the track width of a tractor is adjustable, the front axles have provision to be extended on both sides. The tubular front axles have telescopic arrangement for extension, whereas the I-section type of front axles are three-piece axles.

Maize or corn (Zea mays L.), which was first domesticated in Mexico, is the most widely grown cereal crop in the world. Maize is consumed as feed and food, and also has myriads industrial applications, including the production of bioethanol and starch. Due to its highest genetic potential, production and productivity among the cereal crops, maize is called as “Queen of the Cereals”. Noble Laureate Dr. Norman E. Borlaug, the Father of Green revolution stated 15 years ago that “The past two decades saw the revolution in rice and wheat, the next few decades will be known as maize era”. In India, maize is the third largest grain crop and its production and demand is increasing rapidly. In India, it is primarily a non-food cereal crop, with only 10% being consumed as direct human food, while the rest being used for feed, industrial and export purposes. The effective deployment of various frontier technologies viz. genetic engineering, doubled haploids, molecular markers, phenomics etc.has greatly helped in raising productivity of maize crop worldwide in the last decade.The present chapter provides an overview on role of frontier technologies in maize crop improvement.

India, a predominantly agrarian nation, relies heavily on agriculture for livelihoods. Over the decades, agricultural policies have focused on increasing the supply and accessibility of staple grains. This strategy has successfully reduced hunger and transformed the country’s food system (Pingali et al., 2019). At the forefront of this transformation stands Punjab that played a pivotal role in moving India from a food scarcity to self-sufficiency. Punjab’s agricultural success is globally recognized, driven by the rapid technology adoption, enabled through synergy of infrastructure, incentives and most critically, information (Singh & Kohli, 1997). Among these drivers, dissemination through agricultural extension proved instrumental in ensuring that innovations such as high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, irrigation facilities and market incentives reached farmers effectively. While various factors contributed to Punjab’s growth, but agricultural extension remains a cornerstone, translating research breakthroughs into fieldlevel impact. Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) has been a key catalyst in this journey. while serving as a premier institution in agricultural research, education, and extension. PAU’s extension system has evolved in response to shifting agricultural needs, environmental challenges, and technological advancements. Beginning in 1960s, PAU led the Green Revolution by introducing HYVs and modern agricultural inputs through a dedicated, farmer-focused extension network (Gulati et al., 2018). In its early decades, PAU’s extension services emphasized increasing productivity through mechanization and the use of fertilizers and pesticides. Initiatives such as Kisan Melas (Farmers’ Fairs) and Kisan Clubs’ facilitated knowledge transfer to rural communities, fostering large-scale adoption of new technologies. However, by the late 1980s, concerns such as soil degradation and pest resistance prompted a strategic pivot. The PAU approach shifted from purely productivity-focused methods to more sustainable and diversified practices such as Integrated Nutrient Management (INM), integrated weed management (IWM) Integrated Pest Management (IPM), water conservation, etc. Today, PAU continues to modernize its extension practices through participatory, farmer-centric approaches. The current emphasis lies in promoting innovation, entrepreneurship, adaptability and sustainability through a blend of traditional outreach and modern ICT tools. Notable innovative approaches include e-extension services via mobile apps and online portals, real-time advisory systems through SMS and digital platforms, hybrid training modules

Earlier, it was a general perception that frost is something like snow that falls from the sky onto the Earth and causes cooling of the plant surface leading to freezing and lethal damage. But, with advancement in knowledge, it is now well understood that it is the cooling of a surface to a subzero temperature which leads to solidification of the water vapours present in the air onto it resulting in the formation of a white crystalline layer of ice molecules. The ice so formed further grows into the plant system causing damage to it through intracellular or intercellular freezing.

Fruit and nut crops have adapted to a wide range of soil, climate and moisture conditions irrespective of their place of origin. The limits of the distribution of these crops across the globe are largely governed by climatic factors such as temperature, wind direction, solar luminance level, length of day (latitude) and atmospheric water vapour content besides other factors. These climatic factors are considered critical in governing the distribution of plant species because not only they limit the growth and development of plant species but also determine the consistency of annual cropping and the quality output. 

As the vulnerability of different plant species to frost and low-temperature stress is quite variable, the symptoms are also variable, therefore. The development of visual symptoms depends largely upon the plant genotype, growing environment and tissue type being exposed to low-temperature stress.

Various types of winter damage can occur to fruit trees. Temperature-related injuries include sunscald, tip dieback, bud death and heartwood damage. Even after planting frost tolerant varieties and rootstocks, it is important to manage frost occurring in regions where it is suspected to happen, it is necessary to prevent injury. When temperatures dip below the freezing point, water molecules move out of plant cells through the cell membrane due to ice formation in the intercellular spaces. Other cell constituents like sugars become more concentrated within the cell and with gradual reduction in water leads to dehydration and necrosis. At relatively short and moderate freezing temperatures little damage occurs to plants, but when temperatures fluctuate drastically or descend below -4^oC, ice crystals form and intracellular freezing occurs leading to cell death. Tip dieback, bud death, and heartwood damage usually occur in situations where temperatures drop dramatically before the plant has hardened off adequately.

Frost is a thermodynamic phenomenon that occurs in the atmosphere, especially under subtropical and temperate conditions during winter. To understand the horticultural implications of this meteorological event, it is necessary to understand the frost related terms and jargon, first. Some of the common terms used here in this book are described hereunder:

Global climate change has increased the weather variability across all geographical settings. The transitional regions between the tropics and temperate region are expected to buffer the changes comparatively for a extended duration of time.

Adverse climatic conditions like temperature, humidity, frost etc. affect vegetative growth, flowering, fruiting as well as quality of horticultural crops. Tropical crops are usually more sensitive to low temperature and frost injuries whereas temperate crops are vulnerable to high temperature effects. High temperature beyond tolerable limits may cause sunscald, tip dieback, bud death and heartwood damage. On the other hand, when temperature drops below the freezing point; water molecules ice formation in the intercellular spaces takes place showing freezing injuries on various plant parts. The symptoms like dehydration and necrosis are visible on plant due to increased concentration of sugars within the cell causing reduction in the water content. The extent of damage will depend upon the prevailing low temperature and its duration. Exposure of the plant near freezing temperature for prolonged time causes death of the plant due to formation of ice crystals in intercellular spaces.