eChapters

8.1 INTRODUCTION

To implement a good GIS project, a well structured project design and management are essential. Well planned project will give fruitful result within the stipulated time. Project not completed in time will not incur more cost and also the time delay will add negative value to the project. Hence all the elements in project planning and implementation should be considered to have a desired result. Some of the issues are also present in GIS and they will be rectified in the next decade.

8.2 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Any project is coming into reality due to necessity. If water scarcity is more in a hard rock region with sufficient rainfall, it is important to augment groundwater resource using rain water harvesting structures. It is important to build water harvesting structures like check dam, percolation pond in suitable locations so that groundwater recharge will be more. Hence a problem is identified and the project work may be carried out by a government or private organisation and the result is given to the government to implement the project. Likewise many area may require a project in GIS environment for planning. Once a project is created any development taking place can be added and GIS database is updated.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Geographic Information System handles large volumes of data. It is important to know the nature of data, instruments from which the data is collected and represented in computers. GIS data is either spatial or aspatial. Data is an important component in GIS. Digital data are available for some projects. but for many projects, input data may not be available. Now-a-days, data is supplied by many government, private organizations and also available on internet. If data for a particular project is not available, then the user has to collect the data from satellite imageries, GPS and other instruments and maps from various sources.

Spatial Data

All locations in the earth surface are spatial data. Location of a city, location of a river, location of a lake are represented in earth by their latitude or longitude in global coordinate system or as x,y coordinate in Cartesian coordinate system. Spatial data consists of location, shape and size in earth. A village boundary is represented as a polygon in map. The village is having certain shape of irregular polygon with definite area. As all these are mappable , they are called as spatial data. But name of the village, revenue of a village and description about a village and called as non-spatial or aspatial data.

Abstract

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) application in plant genetic resource management allow capture, manipulate, process and display of georeferenced data integrated with genetic resource database for operations such as query and statistical analysis, visualization and geographic representation. GIS based several spatial tools have been developed that model species’ ecological niches finding a relationship between crop or variety with a set of environmental parameters and useful for planning exploration, evaluation trials, in situ and ex situ conservation sites. GIS technologies have direct practical application in elucidation of genetic, ecological and geographic patterns in the distribution of crops and wild relatives; mapping of richness, diversity, distribution of useful traits and, location of areas with complementary diversity; gene bank information management and strategies for future explorations and gap analysis; selection of suitable accessions/sites for ex situ evaluation; searching germplasm for abiotic stress tolerance and developing core collections. With the increasing availability of high- speed computers and software development in the area of GIS tools specific to PGR management increasing trend in application of these is expected. Apart from ecogeographic survey for locating diversity and germplasm collection and design, management and monitoring of in situ reserves, introduction of new varieties, and development of core collection, locating gene donors for biotic and abiotic stresses are the areas to be benefited with the GIS application.

Keywords: GIS, genetic resource, distribution, diversity, core collection, gap analysis, mapping

Introduction

Rainfall is one of the climatic variables that varies very highly spatially and temporally. Understanding this micro-level variation is a crucial indicator for planning future water requirements and preparing for management strategies. Numerous researchers have delved into the distribution, variability, and trends of rainfall across diverse spatial scales, ranging from global to regional and basin levels. Nair et al. (2014) analyzed the rainfall trend and seasonality index for Kerala state in India over the last 100 years. The rainfall trend was found to be decreasing significantly in almost all the regions of the state. Nischitha et al. (2013) provide insights into the spatial and temporal variability of daily monsoon rainfall in the Tunga and Bhadra River basins in Karnataka state. Paradkar et al. (2019) evaluated the pattern of weekly rainfall by using statistical parameters such as mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis for five stations in Pratapgarh district.

Geographical Information System (GIS) proved to be an effective tool in handling information and analyzing rainfall patterns, providing visual representations, and facilitating the decision-making process (Kadir et al. (2016) and Rao et al. (2017)). Anand et al. (2020) analyzed the long-term spatial and temporal trends of rainfall in the Lower Bhavani basin in Tamil Nadu, India using GIS and statistical methods. Earls et al. (2007) compared different interpolation methods such as Inverse Distance Weighting, Spline, and Kriging (ordinary and universal) to generate a 30 m representation of the rainfall data. Spatial interpolation techniques perform differently and their evaluation should not rely solely on quantitative assessment. Wu & Hung (2016) compared the performance of three spatial interpolation techniques i.e., IDW, kriging, and spline using quantitative assessment, 2D visualization, and 3D visualization. IDW and kriging performed similarly in terms of quantitative assessment, while spline performed worse. IDW and spline performed similarly in 2D visualization, while kriging showed different behavior. Kriging was observed to be an inexact interpolation in 3D visualization, while spline tended to create extreme values along the edges of the study area. Some studies discovered that the accuracy of Kriging in the study area is higher than that of IDW or Thiessen interpolations (Earls et al. 2007; Song et al. 2008; Chen et al. 2010). GIS applications have the capability to integrate spatial data and non-spatial data like rainfall and to visualize, model, and analyze how rainfall distribution varies across space and over time, providing insights into climate change, water resource management, agricultural planning, and disaster management. The present study aims to analyze annual rainfall data pertaining to Kerala state in the GIS environment.

Introduction

A system is a simplified version of reality and is defined as a collection of interrelated parts that work together. Most systems share certain common characteristics. These common characteristics include the following:
Systems have a structure that is defined by its parts and processes. Systems are generalizations of reality.
Systems tend to function in the same way as nature. This involves inputs getting changed in a process and realization of new outputs.
The various parts of a system have functional as well as structural relationships between each other.
Owing to the functional relationships that exist between the parts there is a flow and transfer of some type of energy and/or matter. In case of information systems there is a flow of information in the structure.
The parts that make up a system show certain degree of integration. In other words the parts work well together.

Abstract

The rapid development and integration of spatial technologies viz., Geographical Information System (GIS), Remote Sensing (RS) along with Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provide functional alternatives to revolutionize the conventional entomological approaches like surveillance, spatial/temporal distribution of insect populations, pest distribution mapping and predictive modeling. Application of these technologies for insect problems is well established in the fields of forest, range land, medical and agricultural entomology elsewhere. Nevertheless, in India its field relevance in agricultural entomology is still limited owing to lack of proven field prototype studies and collaborative efforts among stakeholders. It’s time to gain real momentum to integrate these progressive technologies to formulate sustainable integrated pest management programs.

Key words: GIS, Remote Sensing, Insect Populations, Field Applications

This chapter introduces the integration of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, and artificial intelligence (AI) for modern forest monitoring and management. It explains how remote sensing provides spatially continuous information, GIS functions as a spatial database and decision-support environment, and AI and machine learning enable prediction and pattern recognition. Applications include forest inventory, carbon estimation, biodiversity assessment, forest-fire detection, insect monitoring, and disturbance mapping. The chapter also examines GeoAI, smart forestry, emerging technologies, data challenges, and future opportunities such as cloud-based geospatial platforms and explainable AI.

impacts other speheres and that too on a distal place! This chapter explains how global warming affects remote places like highlands of Bhutan. Severe hot summers during the year 1994 led to excessive melting of glaciers in the higher Himalayas. The exceptional melting contributed enormous amount of melt water to the lake basins, which caused breach of the morainic dam and consequent enlargement of the outlet of the Luggye Tsho and the Tshopda Tsho, Bhutan. Floods followed the breach on October 7, 1994. These floods destabilized the slopes on either bank of the Pho Chhu near Tshopda Tsho outlet making them prone to landslides. The flash floods also eroded the left lateral moraine of the Raphstreng Tsho, which had disturbed the original angle of repose. The Raphstrcng area is also prone to ice avalanches, rock glaciers, surge of which can damage the rim and also cause spillover of water. Examination of geological, geomorphological, geotechnical, microclimatic and hydrographic information in and around the glacial lakes led to improved understanding of breach characteristics based on which mitigation measures were suggested and implemented in the years 1996-97. Since then the lakes have remained intact. From this case study and satisfactory performanceof mitigationmeasures suggest that similar integrated studies have to be conducted for thorough understanding of hazard prone areas based on which mitigation measures have to be implemented for successful reduction of impacts.

INTRODUCTION

The Lunana area, situated in the northern district of Gasa, is one of the most extensively glaciated terrains of Bhutan (Fig. 1). In response to the general global warming, these glaciers like those of other parts of the Himalaya are in a state of steady retreat, often leaving behind a chain of lakes. Though the glacial lakes endow scenic beauty, they also pose environmental hazards, due to frequent bursting of their morainic dams and consequent flash floods. The last lake-burst occurred on 7^th October 1994, leading to floods in the Pho Chhu River. Following floods, the Geological Survey of India in collaboration with the Royal Government of Bhutan, investigated the Lunana area to identify the causes and effects of the floods and suggest remedial measures. More than a decade had passed since the implementation of mitigation measures and there has been no such breach and flood despite continued Glacial Vetreat during to Global Warming. This chapter describes the characteristics of these glacial lakes, nature and results of the study and mitigation efforts.

Gladiolus (Gladiolus spp.) belongs to family Iridaceae and subfamily Ixioideae. Gladiolus is a Latin word, the diminutive of “gladius” meaning sword, sometimes called as sword lily. The plant is herbaceous perennial and semi-hardy. It is commonly grown from rounded, symmetrical corm, which is enveloped in several layers of brownish, fibrous tunics. The cultivated gladiolus is a complex assemblage of cultivars originating from complex ancestry of natural selection or hybridization involving several species. Modern garden gladiolus is a complex of at least twelve species (Raghava, 2000). It is an important commercial cut flower in both domestic and international markets.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

There are two main centres of distribution of Gladiolus species, one in Mediterranean basin and the other in southern and central Africa (Lewis et al., 1972 and Delpierre and Du Plessis 1974). Most of the species are native to Mediterranean region and tropical parts of the South Africa, particularly the region of the Cape of Good Hope (Raghava, 2000).

The name gladiolus was coined by Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23-79) to describe the shape of the leaf which resembles that of sword (Latin word gladius meaning sword). It is native to South Africa. Most of the species scattered throughout South Africa, Zambesi River, Rhodesia, Mt. Kilimangero, Tanganyika, Natal and Cape of Good Hope, Republic of South Africa, Madagascar and Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Gladioli are said to be cultivated since the days of ancient Greece. As evidenced by a record in Lyte’s Nieeve Herball, it is known since 1578, first introduced in France and soon after spread to England, Germany, Holland and North America. No evidence is available that any species of gladiolus of South African origin was ever grown in Europe prior to 1700. Cornutus described Gladiolus aethiopion bearing light red-scarlet flowers and is from Cape region. In the middle of eighteenth century the South African species were introduced into Europe. Gladiolus tristis closely related to G. grandis was first introduced in Chelsea Physii Garden, UK in 1745 from Cape region and Walat. G. illyricus is native to Mediterranean region. In 1749, Gladiolus grandis was naturalized in Spain from South Africa.

By 1816, France, Holland and Belgium started raising hybrids, the first being Ghant Gladiolus, Gladiolus gandavensis, in 1841, by crossing G. cardinalis and G. psittacinus and vice-versa. Gladiolus primulinus having central petals with hooded characteristics was collected from its native place on the banks of Zambesi River near Victoria Falls in 1902. Victor Lemoine of France used G. primulinus for producing ‘Primulinus Hybrids’ during 1906-1908 while A.E. Kunderd of Indiana, U.S.A. in 1915 produced a similar race ‘Primulinus Grandiflora Hybrids’ by using same parentage as Lemoine. In 1907, first ruffled gladiolus with fimbriated and frilled petals was produced by the efforts of Kunderd.

Gladiolus is a potential flower crop for floriculture industry in India. Gladiolus is commercially grown in West Bengal, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Haryana, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi and Rajasthan. The area of the states of U.P., Uttarakhand, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and H.P. and surrounding Delhi grow gladiolus mostly for Delhi flower market (Singh, 2006).

Abstract: Gladiolus, commonly known as ‘sword lily’ is native to South Africa. Most members of genus are heteroploids. It has pivotal place as cut flower with novel phenotypes (Grandifloras, Primulinus, Butterfly, Miniature, Face Ups, Orchideola), cultivars available on world market. Modern types are evolved through conventional breeding and very few through mutation breeding. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of fragrant, winter hardy and disease resistant cultivars. Breeders have reported close linkages in variety of traits. Cross pollinating nature coupled with high heterozygosity makes heredity transmission unpredictable. Future crop idiotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this important crop during the next millennium.

Gladiolus is a major commercial cut flower appreciated for its long spikes, attractive florets and wide range of colours. This chapter describes its origin, species, genetics, botanical characteristics and improved varieties. It explains corm and cormel propagation, climate, soil, planting time, spacing, nutrient management, irrigation, staking and other crop-management practices. The chapter also discusses major pests and diseases, physiological problems, harvesting stages, grading, postharvest handling, storage and yield. Emphasis is placed on producing long, straight and high-quality spikes suitable for domestic and export markets. The chapter provides practical production guidance for commercial gladiolus cultivation under Indian conditions. effectively.

Gladiolus (Gladiolus spp.) belongs to family Iridaceae and subfamily Ixioideae. Gladiolus is a Latin word, the diminutive of “gladius” meaning sword, sometimes called as sword lily. The plant is herbaceous perennial and semi-hardy. It is commonly grown from rounded, symmetrical corm, which is enveloped in several layers of brownish, fibrous tunics. The cultivated gladiolus is a complex assemblage of cultivars originating from complex ancestry of natural selection or hybridization involving several species. Modern garden gladiolus is a complex of at least twelve species (Raghava, 2000). It is an important commercial cut flower in both domestic and international markets.

Gladiolus, commonly known as ‘Sword lily’ which derives its name from latin word Gladius meaning sword shape foliage. The name gladiolus was originally given by Pliny the Elder (A.D.23-79). It is an important florist crop, cut flower in the domestic and international flower trade. It is relatively easy to grow, suitable for cut flower, pots, hanging basket, bedding and exhibition. An engrossing cut spikes bear a large number of florets on rachis, which exhibit various sizes, forms, with smooth, ruffled, deeply crinkled or laciniated tepals. As a genus it was first proposed by Tournefort and which was accepted in botanical litreture by Linnaeus through his description “Species Plantarum” in 1753 and “Genera Planterum” in 1754. The gladioli are said to be cultivated since the days of ancient Greece. The genus Gladiolus, at present comprises with 255 species (Mishra et al.,1995; Goldblatt and Manning,1998) with wide distribution occurs in Central Europe, Mediterranean region, Central and South Africa are primary centre of origin. Campbell and Bower (2003) mentions about one more species Gladiolus scabridus- a new species 1978 from the mountains of northern Kwa Zulu- Natal and southern Swaziland, restricted to well- drained rocky habitat and where it is endemic. This species has enormous commercial potential have large number of pink flowers. So now number of recorded gladiolus species are more than 260. The gladiolus was brought into cultivation first during Greek period. Gladiolus has been documented in literature since 1578, as evidenced from the record Lyte’s Nievve herbal. This was first time introduced in France and soon after spread to England, Germany, Holland and North America. In India, its cultivation dates back to 19^th century as mentioned in the ‘Firminger’s Manual of Gardening in India (1863)’ that Mr. Charles Gray of Conoor grew some gladioli from corms and seeds at his garden. The European Union gladiolus importing countries are Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, Denmark, Spain, France, United Kingdom, The Netherlands, Italy and Portugal.

INTRODUCTION

Gladiolus is very popular bulbous flowering plant. It is an important commercial flower crop and having pivotal place as cut flower both in domestic and international market. Gladiolus was introduced into cultivation towards the end of the sixteenth century. It is relatively easy to grow and is ideal for bedding and exhibition. The fascinating spikes bear a large number of florets, which exhibit varying sizes and forms with smooth, ruffled or deeply crinkled tepals. Except true blue and green, practically all colours are available in gladiolus. The flowers are used in flower arrangement, in bouquets and for indoor decorations. Now it ranks next to tulip in the Netherlands and other European countries in trade for use as cut flowers of bulbous crops and fourth in international trade of ornamental for cut flowers. Its keeping quality makes it a very popular commercial cut flower after rose. Gladiolus occupies first place in terms of returns as compared to other cut flowers. Gladiolus, a potential floral crop forms part of Rs. 200 crores floriculture industry in the country. It is estimated that throughout India gladiolus is grown in about 1270 ha, producing about 127 million cut spikes. In India, gladiolus is commercially grown in West Bengal, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Punjab, Haryana, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi and Rajasthan. The area of the states of U.P., Uttaranchal, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and H.P. and surrounding Delhi grow gladiolus mostly for Delhi flower market. Important pockets of commercial gladiolus cultivation are Lucknow, Meerut, Bulandsahar, Ghaziabad and Uttaranchal. In Delhi market, gladiolus is available virtually throughout the year as growers stagger the corm planting from July to December to harvest the flowers from September to May. During the period between June to December, the supply of gladiolus spikes to Delhi market comes from Jammu and Kashmir, Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh. The high remuneration in this market is obtained from winter grown gladiolus.

Gladiolus is a flower of breathtaking beauty with a wide range of colours, size and form. Its magnificent inflorescence has won for it, a place of pride in gardens and value as a cut flower. Except true blue and green practically all colours are available in gladiolus. Flowers are long lasting and stand transport well. They are widely used in flower arrangements, bouquets and indoor decorations. It is estimated that gladiolus is grown throughout India over on area of 1270 ha (Arora et al. 2002).

Thrips : Taeniothrips simplex : Thripidae

Yellow coloured nymphs and black adults damage leaves and spikes by rasping tissues and sucking the sap.  Affected leaves and spikes develop silver streaks, turn brown, get deformed and dry when attack is severe.  Corms in storage are also attacked. Infested corms are sticky, get shriveled and produce weak plants.

Introduction

Gladiolus is an important commercial flower crop and is very popular as cut flower both in domestic and international market. It is a bulbous plant. Gladiolus was introduced into cultivation towards the end of the sixteenth century. The flowers are used in flower arrangement, in bouquets and for indoor decorations. In India gladiolus is commercially grown in West Bengal, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Haryana, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi and Rajasthan.

Genetics

Gladiolus commonly called Sword Lily belongs to family Iridaceae and subfamily Ixioideae. There are about 260 species of gladiolus. It has the basic chromosome number n=15. Most members of genus are heteroploids having very small chromosomes ranging from 2n=30 to 120 (Diploid, triploid, tetraploid, pentaploid, hexaploid, octaploid and hyperaneauploid).

Synonyms : Farcy, Pacin, Carn

Glanders is a contagious, acute or chronic, usually fatal anthropo-zoonotic disease of Equidae caused by Burkholderia mallei and characterized by serial development of ulcerating nodules that are most commonly found in the upper respiratory tract, lungs, and skin. The first recorded description of glanders is from the third century from Aristotle. In 1664, glanders was recognized as a contagious disease and in 1830, it’s zoonotic potential was suspected. In the late 1800’s, the Mallein test (1891) was developed for diagnosis of glanders. By 1910, the U.S., Canada and Great Britain all implemented glanders-control programs. B. mallei was eradicated from the United States in 1929.

5.1. Introduction

Glass is one of the oldest packaging materials used for food. The use of glass as a packaging material dates back to 3000 BC where it was the first object to be used for containing and carrying food objects. It is made by cooling a heated fused mixture of silicates, lime and soda. It is an amorphous material in which all the constituents individually form an irregular network at microscopic level. It means it has failed to form a definite crystalline structure during cooling. Glass is defined as “amorphous, inorganic product of fusion that has been cooled to a rigid condition without crystallizing (ASTM, 2010)”. It has no definite melting point.