eChapters

Introduction

In India, pistachio cultivation is mainly grown for its edible nuts and it is a deciduous tree in the family Anacardiaceae. On the tree, pistachios grow in grape-like clusters, and the shell has the pistachio inside. The leaves of the pistachio tree are pinnate and composed of five individual oval leaflets. The pistachio tree flowers are small, brownish-green in colour, and lack petals. Pistachio trees can reach up to 20 feet in the wild but are generally smaller under cultivation. It is a famous dry fruit, widely loved by people in India.

Introduction

Plum is an important temperate fruit, which is used as a fresh fruit as well as in preserved form. It is next to the peaches in economic importance amongst the stone fruits. It requires a certain period of chilling during winters to break dormancy, so it is cultivated in areas where winters are cool. Fruits are a rich source of minerals, vitamins, sugars and organic acids, in addition to protein, fat and carbohydrates. The types of plums with high sugar content above 18% are known as prunes which can be dried with pit. In India, plum was introduced by Alexander Coutts in 1870 in Himachal Pradesh. After evaluation, only Japanese plum has been recommended for commercial cultivation in the mid hills of the temperate region of the north-western Himalayas. Some low-chilling varieties of plum were also introduced at Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana.

Introduction

The cultivated strawberry is one of the world’s most important soft fruits. Fruit is technically known as an accessory fruit in that the fleshy part is derived not from the ovaries (achenes) but from the receptacle. Strawberries are a very nutritive fruit. It is a rich source of vitamins and minerals. Strawberry fruit contains about 0.5% pectin. The flavour of the fruit is due to the presence of volatile esters. Most of the fruits are consumed fresh and some are processed into jams, chutneys, squash, and other foodstuffs. It is used in large-scale ice cream making. The fruits are canned and shipped in frozen conditions to western countries. It is a fruit plant that is monoecious, has a short day, and grows quickly. Strawberry industries in America were started at the beginning of the 18th century, and today nearly 50% of the world’s production is in Europe.

Introduction

The wild seedling of walnut has been found growing in west regions right from the Carpathian Mountains in Eastern Europe across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Southern USSR and Afghanistan to the North-Western Himalayas. It is believed to have originated in Iran and the areas surrounding it. The Returning army of Alexander brought it to Europe from Iran. Almost all parts of the walnut tree are utilized. The fruit has excellent flavour and is mainly consumed as a dried fruit, eaten for table purposes. The kernels contain about 60–75% fat and oil, 16% carbohydrate, and 15% protein. Jammu and Kashmir is the largest walnut producing state in India and the USA is a leading producer of walnuts.

Plantation crops: Plantation crop are a group of commercial crops that are perennial in nature, cultivated extensively in tropical and subtropical situations that need employment of labour throughout the year and whose products are usually consumed after processing. ex. Tea, Coffee, Coconut, Rubber, Cocoa, Areca Nut, and Oil Palm.

Introduction

The Arecanut palm is cultivated primarily for its kernel obtained from the fruit, which is chewed when it is tender, ripe or processed. Despite being native to the Malayan Archipelago, the Philippines, and other East Indian Islands.Only in India is it under scientific cultivation. India is the world’s largest producer of arecanut, contributing nearly 74 % of world production. India is the world’s largest consumer of arecanut (accounting to 89 % of world production). Other uses for arecanut other than chewing are negligible. Its export prospects are also very limited. Therefore, the present policy is not to expand the area under arecanut but to adopt intensive cultivation and take up replanting of the aged and unproductive gardens. Inter and mixed cropping in arecanut gardens is advocated to augment the income from the existing arecanut groves. Alkaloids present in arecanut, Arecoline is the main and physiologically most active alkaloid present to an extent of 0.07 to 0.1 per cent.

Introduction

The betelvine is a perennial dioecious climber and is believed to have originated in Central and Eastern Malaysia. It is mainly cultivated in South East Asian countries, viz., India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, etc. It is one of the important commercial crops grown mostly by small and marginal farmers in the states of Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa with an estimated area of 53,539 ha (Ray, 2008). Annual production is worth Rs. 9000 million and estimated that about 20 million people earn their livelihood directly or indirectly partly or fully from production, processing, handling, transportation and marketing of betel leaves in India. Betel leaves worth 30-40 million rupees are exported to countries like Bahrain, Canada, Great Britain, Nepal, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and many other European countries.

Introduction

Cashew is native to South Eastern Brazil, from where it was introduced to the Malabar coast of India in the sixteenth century to cover bare hills and for soil conservation. It gained commercial importance in 1920. African countries produce large quantities of cashew nuts, but they are not processed into consumable products because of difficulties in organizing the native labour. India imports raw cashew nuts which are processed and converted into cashew kernels and cashew shell liquid and re-exported to countries like the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and Russia. The cashew kernel of India is of the highest quality in the world. India is the largest producer and exporter of cashews in the world. India stands first in area and production in the world. Indian cashew export: 63 per cent of global cashew trade. The national average is 835 kg per ha (i.e., around 5.50 kg per tree) and this is far less than the achievable level of 2000 kg per ha (i.e., around 12.50 kg per tree). Maharashtra state is having the highest productivity of about 1337 kg per ha (mainly due to adoption of drip irrigation and mulching techniques), while productivity in West Bengal has come down (1140 kg/ha), mainly because of old plantations. Due to its nutritive value and commerce, it is designated as “zero cholesterol nut or white gold”. The cashew nut is a unique combination of fat (47 %), protein (21 %), carbohydrates (22 %) and vitamins (10 %). India contributes about 65 % of the world’s exports. The USA is the largest importer of cashew kernels.

Introduction

The Greek names Theos and Broma mean “Gods” and “Food,” respectively. Cocoa consumption is in temperate countries. Cocoa is a beverage crop introduced for cultivation in India in the early 1965. The cocoa plant is a perennial dicotyledonous which has been under cultivation since pre-historic times. shade-loving and evergreen trees. It is native to the Amazon valley of South America and is now cultivated largely in Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Indonesia, Peru, Sierra Leon Cameroon, Equator, West Indies and Malaysia. In India, cocoa is mainly grown in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and. It is a rich source of fat (37%) and protein (7%). It also produces theobromin. Cocoa is used in manufacturing chocolate, cocoa powder, cocoa butter and other nutritious foods.

Introduction

It is considered as Kalpavriksha as it provides the basic necessities of life. Coco- Spanish word meaning monkey face (probably refers to the three scars on the base of the shell resembling two eyes and a nose on a monkey’s face). World Vietnam, India, Guyana, Jamaica, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia, Fiji, etc. Vietnam has the highest productivity. In India, coconut is mainly grown in Kerala, which stands first in India in both area and production of coconut, while productivity is highest in Tamil Nadu.

• World Coconut Germplasm (WCG) is located at Sipoghat, Andaman Nicobar Islands
• Coconut Development Board (CDB) is located at Cochin, Kerala
• CDB comes under Ministry of Agriculture established at Kochi in 1981, Kerala

Introduction

Coffee is the second important beverage, ranking second among traded commodities. Its dried beans are roasted, ground, and brewed to make a stimulating and refreshing beverage. Arabica coffee originated in Ethiopia, from a place called Caffa. The word “coffee” is derived from a place called “Caffa.” Here it occurs naturally in the forest between 1,400 to 1,800 feet of elevation. Nearly 80 percent of the world’s coffee is produced by Coffea Arabica. Robusta coffee is thought to have originated in Central Africa (Congo and Zaire). Arabica coffee was introduced in 1670 by Muslim pilgrim Baba Budan. He brought seven seeds from Yemen and cultivated them in Chikmagalur, Karnataka. The original seeds he brought were probably Mokka seeds. Robusta coffee was introduced from the Indochina region at the close of the 19^th century for planting in the states of lower elevations. World: Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia, India, Ethiopia, Peru, Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras. It is also growing in India in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.

Introduction

Oil palm is recognized as the highest and cheapest edible oil-yielding crop. Palm oil is extracted from the fruit’s fleshy mesocarp, which contains 45-55 percent oil. The crop is unique in producing 2 distinct types of oil palm oil and palm kernel oil, which are used for culinary and industrial purposes. Being rich in beta carotene, palm oil contributes substantially to the nutritional and energy requirements of the masses. It is also grown in India Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Mizorum, Orissa.

Introduction

The palmyrah is believed to be a native of tropical Africa. It grows extensively in drier parts of India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia. It is recognised as the state tree of Tamil Nadu in 1978, recognising its importance. It has been estimated that there are about 8.6 crores of Palmyra palms existing in India, of which 5.02 crores of palms are alone spread over Tamil Nadu and the remaining 3.58 crores of palms are in Andra Pradesh.

Introduction

The rubber tree is the most important commercial source of natural rubber, an industrial raw material of strategic importance, recovered from its latex. Hevea was first used as a source of rubber by the French. The name rubber is derived from the quality of material in rubbing pencial marks. It was introduced to tropical Asia in 1876 through Kew Garden in the UK with seeds brought from Brazil by Sir Henry Wickham. It is now distributed in the tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. The major rubber-growing countries are Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Cote d’Ivoire, China and India Thailand has the maximum area under rubber, but China has taken the credit for maximum rubber production. India is the second largest producer and consumer of natural rubber in the world. In India, rubber is grown over an area of 7.57 lakh hectares with a production of 12.57 lakh tonnes, 9% of the total world natural rubber output. In India, Kerala is the predominant rubber-growing state. International Rubber Research and Development Board (IRRDB), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

• Association of Natural Rubber Producing Countries (ANRPC), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
• Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII-1955) is located at Kottayam, Kerala

Introduction

Tea is the most popular and cheapest beverage consumed by two-thirds of the world population. The stimulative effect of tea is due to the presence of caffeine (1.25–4.5 %). Panthothenic acid, caffeine and theophylline present in tea stimulate the nerves and are good for the heart. Tea is grown in 50 countries, predominantly in Asia, Africa and Europe. Of the major tea producers, India, China, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Russia and Indonesia contribute the maximum share to global production. Though the share of India in global tea production has declined over the years, it still retains its status as the largest tea producer with 30 % of world output (2,780 million kg). India can also boast of producing many varieties of tea. Well-known varieties like Darjeeling, Assam and Nilgiris are well-known for their distinctive characters. Assam (24.86 %), West Bengal (15.20 %), Tamil Nadu (6.28 %) and Kerala (2.28 %) are major tea producing states in the country.

Pollination is one of the most essential ecosystem services which is effectual for crop productivity, biodiversity and human livelihood. Pollination is the process of transferring pollens from anther to stigma for plant reproduction and has direct impact on crop productivity. Conservation and management of pollinators is still ignored in the agriculture development program by the policy makers. In agricultural ecosystem, many agricultural crops are dependent on insects for their pollination, and assisted pollination may have to be done when natural pollination is insufficient in order to reduce potential yield loss (Klein et al., 2007). About 80% of the world’s flowering plant species are dedicated to animal pollination, mostly by insects (FAO, 2007). In 2005, globally, pollinators’ pollination services economic value was estimated to be about €153 billion (Gallai et al., 2009). The United Nations also reported that the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity by insect pollination was valued at £134 billion.

Introduction

Pollination is a process in which pollen grains are transferred from male gametes to the female gamete, thereby enabling fertilization and reproduction through growth of the pollen tube and eventual release of sperm. Fertilization is the union of the egg and sperm. In plants, this may happen after pollination; however, pollination doesn’t always result in fertilization. Fertilization occurs when the pollen grains germinate on the stigma and grow in the style. Reproduction is the process to produce offspring by fusion of male and female gametes, which simply means that the sperms of the pollen unite with the ovules in the ovary of the flower and subsequently produce seed. Flowers may facilitate out-crossing (fusion of sperm and eggs from different individuals in a population) or allow selfing (fusion of sperm and egg from the same flower). Some flowers produce diasporas without fertilization (parthenocarpy).

Pollination is a vital and key component of ecosystem services which is provided by pollinators. FAO, 2007 reported that 80 per cent of plant species rely for pollination on pollinators, which is dominated by insects. Among the insect pollinators, solitary and social bees dominate both managed and natural ecosystems. No other groups of insects are more beneficial to humans than bees. Many plants have evolved intricate relationships with many insect pollinators and without their presence, majority of plant species would not reproduce and maintain their genetic diversity (Daily et al., 1997). In natural ecosystem, insect pollination plays a pivotal role to maintain and conserve the plant biodiversity. On a global scale, the total annual value of insect pollination services has been estimated at USD 217 billion (Sciencedaily, 2008). United Nations reported that the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity by insect pollination was valued at £134 billion.

The Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) is not a disease; it is multi-factorial syndrome which causes massive losses of honey bee in the USA and elsewhere. It is recorded that in European honey bee (Apis mellifera). The adult worker bee population of the colony demean through catastrophic effects of CCD. The dwindling of adult worker bees in colonies and the lack of noticeable symptoms leads to the nebulous label of CCD. In this syndrome, dead worker bees cannot be found in the colony and their vicinity of bee hive, and stored food (honey and pollen) are not touched by robbers bees and combs remain as such for several weeks even after the collapse. Some scientists; Aizen and Harder, also reported this disorder is not universal and, in fact, global populations of honey bee (A. mellifera) populations are increasing. In the spring of 2007, beekeepers in the US reported a rare kind of bee colony disease where they die off and numerous colonies left their hives and disappeared without a trace. The plight of honey bee in USA has caused concern and attracted great attention of scientists to delve and provide explanations of this mystery and preventive measures. In US, it is also christened “Honey bee AIDS” by some popular media. Indeed, honey bee colonies can die in many ways and CCD is just one of them. Finally, since both honey bee host and pathogens are genetically diverse, the symptoms and causes of colony losses may well be different in varrious regions.

Pollination is a keystone process in both human managed and natural terrestrial ecosystems. Pollinators are an input of crop cultivation and associated biodiversity, and provide an essential ecosystem service to both natural and agro- ecosystems. In agro-ecosystems, management of pollinators can maximize the pollination and thereby enhance the crop productivity and yield quality. Pollination is the best example of mutualism between plant species and their pollinators which results into intricate relationships between plant and animal - the reduction or loss of either affecting the survival of both.

Approximately 80 per cent of all flowering plant species are dedicated to pollination by animals and mostly by insects. The negative impact of pollinator deficit is strongly felt in reduction of fruit set seed productivity and agricultural biodiversity. The role of pollinators is transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of the same species to ensure reproduction, seed set, fruit set development and multiplication of plants, both in agro ecosystems and natural ecosystems.

Agricultural biodiversity is known as crop genetic resources, although agroecosystems hold a wide diversity of other organisms that contribute toward their productivity and sustainability. Amongst these pollinators play the massive role in crop pollination and thus ensure that fruit or seeds are formed. Over 3 decades ago, the international community began to emphasize on the importance of pollinators. In agro-ecosystems, pollinators are essential for agriculture, horticultural and forage production as well as the production of seed for many root and fiber crops. Pollinators such as bees, birds and bats affect 35 per cent of the world’s crop production, increasing outputs of 87 of the leading food crops worldwide, plus many plant-derived medicines in our pharmacies (Klein et al., 2007). Food security, food diversity, human nutrition and plant diversity all rely strongly on animal pollinators. Pollination is an essential ecosystem service that enables plant reproduction and food production. The pollinators’ abundance and diversity play pivotal role for enhancement of the productivity, quality and maintenance of natural resources of plant biodiversity. The diminution of pollination abundance and their diversity certainly affect productivity, quality and plant biodiversity.

Pollinators are organisms that help to transfer pollen from anther to stigma of the same species for fertilization and thereby produce seeds and fruits. Pollinators belong to diverse groups viz. insects, birds, reptiles, mammals, etc. Insects; bees butterflies, moths, wasps, flies, some types of beetles. Out of insect pollinators, bees are most important pollinator. Insect pollinators are critical to the production of many crops and play pivotal role to maintain the biodiversity. The decline in honeybee and other pollinator populations have more attention of scientific and public concern globally as well as in India. A number of factors have been observed as potential contributors to these declines and no single factor has been identified as the cause. The available science suggests that multiple factors responsible for population depletion and extinction, including loss of habitat and food sources, diseases, viruses, pests, and pesticide exposure. It is also known that certain pesticides can pose an immediate or “acute” threat to the insect pollinators and bees. In order to protect pollinators, the labels of pesticides that pose such risks should specify detailed directions of application to reduce potential exposure.

In agro-ecosystem, many agricultural and horticultural crops are dependent on insects for their pollination; their degree of interdependence varies species to species. Some plant species depend primarily on a single pollinator’s species or genus, whereas some plant species accept diverse pollinators. About to 80 per cent of flowering plants’ pollination determined for pollinators (FA0, 2007) and out of that most of the floras depend on insect pollinators for pollination and pollinators depend on flora for their food. Bees are considered as most important pollinator due to their diversity, credential ability and effective pollinators of many plant species. Most of the crops pollination need was met by wild pollinators living within the farming landscape (Kevan and Phillips, 2001). Therefore, pollinators play paramount role in ecosystem through enhance the crop productivity and conserving biodiversity. On the above service of pollinators is priceless and natural endowment, but the society we live in, always categorized and measured in terms of financial value. In 2005, globally, insect pollination services economic value was estimated to be about €153 billion (Gallai et al., 2009). The United Nations also reported that the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity by insect pollination was valued at £134 billion. The assisted pollination may have to be done when natural pollination is insufficient in order to reduce potential yield loss (Klein et al., 2007).

Pollinators provide an essential ecosystem service, namely pollination, and it is an intricate relationship between plants and animals where reduction or loss of either will affect the survival of both. It has been established that pollinating agents are essential for survival and reproduction of several wild plant species (Kearns et al., 1998). About 80% of the world’s flowering plant species are dedicated to animal pollination, mostly by insects (FA0, 2007). Although more than 750,000 insect pollinators have been described (Grimaldi and Engel, 2005), possibly as many as 30 million more await discovery and formal description (Erwin, 2004). In 2005, globally, pollinators’ pollination services economic value was estimated to be about €153 billion (Gallai et al., 2009). The United Nations also reported that the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity by insect pollination was valued at £134 billion. The depletion of insect pollinators is due to pollinators’ habitat destruction, heavy tillage, monoculture, injudicious use of pesticides and climate change and therefore, there is the need to create awareness on conservation and pollination management. Climate change is highly affected to species interaction as well as ecosystem ecology (van-der-Putten et al., 2004; Sutherst et al., 2007). Plant-pollinator interaction in both wild and cultivated plant species is under threat (Biesmeijer et al., 2006).

Approximately 80 per cent of all flowering plant species are specialized for pollination by animals and mostly by insects. These crops account for 65 per cent of global food production, still leaving as much as 35 per cent depending on pollinating animals (Klein et al., 2007). These food crops include delicious products such as many of our tree fruits (e.g., apples, cherries, mangos, and avocados) and nuts (e.g., almonds, peanuts, macadamia nuts, and cashew nut), squashes, cucumbers, melons, citrus, and berries. In addition, many of oil seed crops benefit from bee pollination, such as mustard, coconut, canola, safflower, and many more.

The honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most commonly used insect in agricultural crops as managed pollinator in North America and Europe, Japan, China, India and many other parts of the world as well. Farmers in the United States rent more than 2.5 million honey bee colonies every year for fulfillment of pollination deficit but today, the honey bee is threatened by colony collapse disorder (CCD). The demand for honey bees in California almond orchards rapidly increased due to increasing acreage, while on the other side, bee colonies decreased due to CCD, but that occurred during a time when honey bee colonies were not easy to procure and as a result, the cost of renting bees shot up from US$50 per hive in 2003 to US$140 per hive in 2006 (Sumner and Boriss, 2006). The rental charge increased about 3 times within 4 years.

Abstract

Carbohydrates are the primary product of photosynthesis and key source of energy in plant and therefore play important role in plant growth and development. Plant carbohydrates are classified into two categories structural carbohydrates and Non-structural carbohydrates (NSCs). NSCs are main component of vegetative tissue and inside the cell they are present in plastids, cytosol, apoplast and vacuoles. Starch is the storage carbohydrate and is used in unfavorable condition on other hand soluble sugars support functions like supporting new growth and defense as they are intermediary metabolites, osmolytes, and substrates for transport. Under unfavorable condition carbon assimilation is less than the plant demand and under such condition these NSC act as “food pantry” which allow sessile plants to cope up unfavorable condition. Pattern of NSC accumulation may also differ for canopy/distal branches, stems and roots, depending on how drought has affected transport of NSC within the plant. These NSCs protect plants during desiccation and against freezing damage by stabilizing proteins complexes and membranes. Thus, NSCs are important carbohydrates for the growth and development of plant during normal as well as in stressed condition.