eChapters

This chapter introduces the historical development and fundamental concepts of immunology. It highlights the contributions of Edward Jenner, Louis Pasteur, Elie Metchnikoff, Paul Ehrlich, Emil von Behring and other pioneering scientists. Important discoveries related to vaccination, phagocytosis, antibody formation, cellular immunity, ELISA, radioimmunoassay and hybridoma technology are addressed. The chapter also explains antigens, immunogens, epitopes, haptens, adjuvants and the desirable characteristics of an effective immunogen. Questions concerning smallpox and rinderpest eradication, vaccine development and primary and secondary immune responses help readers understand the scientific milestones that established immunology as an essential discipline within veterinary and biomedical sciences.

Introduction

‘Protected cultivation’ is a method of cultivation of plants or crops in artificial environment (Polyhouse/ Greenhouse/Glasshouse) to protect the plants or crops from the natural calamities viz. wind, hailstorm, excessive radiation, temperature extremes, insect-pests and diseases. For matching ever growing needs of human population in the country, it has become imperative to provide the not just cereals but also fruits, vegetables, flowers and other horticultural products to fulfill their requirements. In the present scenario of perpetual demand of horticultural produce in order to increase their production round the year and shrinking landholdings drastically, protected cultivation is the best alternative and drugery- less approach for using land and other resources more effeciently.Protected cultivation comprised of selection of crop and media, climate control,marketing, post harvest technology, plant protection and irrigation/ fertigation.

In India, states like Karnataka, Andra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu are the best suited for protected cultivation of horticultural crops due to their pleasent climatic conditions. Apart from these states, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, West Bengal, Delhi and Jharkhand are also fore runners in adopting protected cultivation. Protected cultivation is a key for sustainable production in the country due to its various ecological regions viz., Western Himalayan region, North eastern Himalayas, Eastern Plateau hill regions, Central Plateau hill regions, Western Plateau hill regions, Southern Plateau hill zone, East coast hill zone, West coast hill regions and Gujarat hill regions (Gupta et al., 2003). Control of light through polycover has become a significant part of horticulture technology because quality, intensity and duration of light is involved in many physiological processes of the plants. A plastic film or fibre glass covering over a green house acts like selective radiation filter which allows solar radiation to pass through but traps radiation emitted by the plants inside the greenhouse which is known as ‘Greenhouse effect’. Carbon dioxide released by the plants at night also trapped, this raises the level of CO₂ there by enhances the photosynthetic activity (Ahmed, 1996).

Ice cream has evolved from simple frozen preparations into a sophisticated food industry combining dairy science, food chemistry, refrigeration, microbiology, processing technology, packaging, and cold-chain management. This chapter introduces the historical development of ice cream and explains its transformation from a luxury product into a widely consumed frozen food. It examines the characteristics of the industry, major categories of ice cream and related frozen products, flavour classifications, composition, and quality characteristics. The chapter also presents the basic manufacturing process, important quality-control parameters, common manufacturing challenges, and emerging industry trends, providing a foundation for understanding ice cream as both a technical product and a commercial business.

In pigs, making a diagnosis of disease is no way different from that of other species. It is based on assessing the owner’s complaint, history of the farm and the ailing pig, signalment factors, detailed observations of the ailing pig, the other pigs in the group and their environment, detailed physical examination. These observation may lead to a provisional diagnosis. Further clinical tests, clinical pathology and a post-mortem examination of the dead pigs are to be taken up to confirm or refute the provisional diagnosis. Because pigs are kept in groups and owing to infectious nature of many diseases, the health of other pigs in the group should also be taken into account. History and General Examination General examination of swine is conducted without handling them. The physical examination of swine includes history taking, examination of environment, examination of group of swine, post mortem examination

Agriculture, also known as farming, is the production of food, fiber, animal feed, and other goods by means of growing and harvesting plants and animals. Agriculture is practiced throughout the world. Many agricultural products are used every day, from the clothes we put on in the morning to the sheets we sleep under at night. When you think of agriculture, think of the five F’s: food, fabric, forestry, farming, and flowers.

Agriculture is the science, art and industry of managing the growth of plants and animals to make use by human beings. In general, agriculture includes soil cultivation, growing and harvesting field crops, raising and breeding livestock, dairy and forest trees etc. The word agriculture is the English adaptation of Latin word i.e. agricultura, from ager, “a field” and cultura, “cultivation” in the strict sense of “tillage of the soil”. Thus, a literal reading of the word yields “tillage of a field/ fields”.

Beekeeping in India has a long-standing and diverse legacy, deeply embedded in traditional knowledge systems and rural livelihoods. References to honey collection are found in ancient texts like the Rigveda and Charaka Samhita, where honey was valued for its medicinal, spiritual, and culinary uses. Historically, tribal honey hunters collected wild honey from cliffs, tree hollows, and forest hives using time-tested, sustainable methods that honored the natural rhythms of bees. While these practices were rooted in indigenous wisdom, the shift to structured beekeeping—using man-made hives—began during colonial times and gained further momentum after independence.

The establishment of institutions such as the Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) in the 1950s and the Central Bee Research and Training Institute (CBRTI) in Pune played a pivotal role in promoting scientific beekeeping and offering formal training. In recent years, the focus has transitioned toward more natural and sustainable beekeeping models, especially within organic and natural farming frameworks.

The word “Veterinary” has originated from Latin “veter?n?rius” concerning draught animal and “Medicine” from Middle English, Middle French, Old French and Latin words meaning “healing”. Veterinary medicine is the offshoot of the medicine dealing with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases/disorders of all animal species including domestic, wild and exotic, companion, draught and pack animals. CONTRIBUTION OF VETERINARY MEDICINE • Reduction in number of cases of tuberculosis and brucellosis in human. • Development of safe and effective vaccines to prevent and control of animal diseases such as Rinderpest, Foot and mouth, Hemorrhagic septicemia, Black quarter,  Pox, Parvo, Distemper,

Study of animal diseases at patient bed side for diagnosis, prognosis, monitoring and treatment comes under

a) Veterinary Epidemiology b) Preventive Medicine

c) Veterinary Jurisprudence d) Veterinary Clinical Medicine

Veterinary Clinical Medicine is a subset of Veterinary Medicine, and refers to study on animal diseases at the patient bed side for diagnosis, monitoring,
prognosis and treatment of the disease. The Veterinary Medicine is that branch of veterinary science that deals with diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control
of diseases, disorders and injury in domesticated, pet, wild, zoo, captive, freeliving animals and birds.

Artificial insemination (AI) is the technique of placing sperm into a female’s uterus (intrauterine), or cervix (intracervical) using artificial means rather than by natural copulation. Modern techniques for artificial insemination were first developed for the dairy cattle industry to allow many cows to be impregnated with the sperm of a bull with traits for improved milk production. It is the first generation reproductive biotechnology which has revolutionized the animal productivity. It has now been established as cheapest and fasted mode of genetic improvement of livestock. AI can be done using fresh semen, semen preserved at room temperature, refrigerated (4ºC) and cryopreserved (-196ºC) semen. The use of AI with frozen semen has become very popular and is being successfully used throughout the country.

Growing of flowers in gardens was patronized by the rulers themselves earlier. Commercial production of flowers gathered momentum globally, efforts to breed new varieties of flower crops intensified in the 70s, and 80s primarily due to their high commercial value. With the advent of WTO followed by the Plant Breeder’s Rights, the commercial breeding efforts got intensified further. Domestication, introduction, selection, hybridization, mutation, and polyploidy breeding have played a major role in the evolution of the present day ornamental plants.

4.1 Brief historical account

Flowers have long been associated with each civilization and culture in the world. Numerous cultures have incorporated flowers into their everyday lives expressions of beauty and art. Flowers are used to celebrate major life events and to decorate graves, expressing emotions in ways that words are deficient.

In the beginning, human kind selected some of the useful wild flowers and brought them into gardens for domestication. They were used for their floral and other values. According to Theophrastus (372-287 BC), carnation was grown in Greece during 300 BC. It was used for medicinal purpose in France. Romans prepared dye from calendula flowers. During early days, Bells of Ireland (Moluccella laevis) was used as a vegetable, but now after much improvement, it is used as a cut flower. The rose, which is an important flower today, has long history, perhaps older than man. Orchids were known for their attractive appearance and fragrance in China about 2500 years ago as mentioned by Confucius. Man’s interest in cultivating and growing orchids developed during the 19^th century in Europe. Chrysanthemum is the one of the oldest flower grown in China as early as 500 BC. Most of garden flowers were introduced into Europe from their wild habitats between 16^th and 19^th century. Ornamental annuals constitute an amazing group of plants widely grown in the parks and gardens in different seasons. The enchanting beauty of colour, shades, form and fragrance have made them an obvious choice for every garden. No other plant can influence the general landscape in such an incredible manner by riot of colours.

Introduction

The creation of first humane life forms has been evidenced since 4 million years ago. They were reportedly called hunter gathers and hunted animals and collected seeds and fruits from wild plants for their livelihood maintenance as food stuff. These nomadic people moved from one place to another place as they depleted the resources of an area. The trial-and-error experimentation and manipulation of species, the scene was set for domestication of plants and animals. In addition, these hunter-gatherer societies probably paved the way for domestication by developing the social structures (later on promoted to village organizations and cooperation) as well as knowledge of cultivation techniques (later on institutes and knowledge centre).

Early Farming (1650 & Before)

Around 12-10,000 years ago human being started farmingin search of food stuff for maintain their livelihood.

It was reported that the roots of farming began within the gift day of Turkey and Middle East the geographical region, referred to as Fertile Crescent of the geographical region. Cultivation and replantation involves the deliberate sowing or alternative management of plants, that don’t essentially take issue from wild populations. The beginning of farming is primarily associated with the domestications of several species; it involves genetic change of wild varieties through conscious or unconscious human selection, the start of farming is primarily related to the domestications of many species; it involves genetic amendment of untamed varieties through aware or unconscious human choice. 2 of the earliest settlements area unit referred to as Cata Huyuk and Jericho, as reported. Folks began to taking regarding wild grasses and mistreatment the seeds for food and planting for following year’s food. These seeds area unit currently referred to as cereals and compose an outsized proportion of the world’s food provide. Water was 1st primary demand of existence of life whereby Jericho, like several early cities was set around a uniform water supply, a spring that created over a thousand gallons each minute. Reportedly, around 2 to 3 thousand folks lived there. Farming of wheat, barley, peas, and lentils supported these folks were found there.

It is supposed that man was evolved on earth about 15 lakh years ago. This man started to move by standing erect on his feet and called Homo erectus L. Later the modern man was evolved called Homo sapiens L. (Sapiens means learning habit) due to his continuous learning habit. It is difficult to trace the exact period of beginning of agriculture. Archeological evidences indicated that, Agriculture started about 50,000 years ago.

Hunting was the primary source of food in olden days and was prevailed for long time. They obtained his food through domestication of some animals like dogs, horse, cow, buffalo etc. They live in the periphery of the forest and migrate from one place to another in search of food. It was not comfortable and they started enjoying by settling at one place near the river and started agricultural system.

Definition of Animal Breeding
Animal breeding, as the application of science to the genetic improvement of animals, implies a close inter relationship between theory and its application. Genetics has provided the matrix form which logical principles could be developed and tested by experimentation and practice.
During the 20th century, genetics has assumed a broader meaning and numerous subdivisions of the discipline has emerged. Advances in animal breeding also have drawn heavily on contributions from statistics, biochemistry, physiology, economics and other disciplines. Animal breeding and reproductive physiology have been uniquely interwoven.
Animals with superior genotypes cannot contribute to succeeding generations unless their reproductive capacity is maintained at satisfactory levels.
Livestock production is an economic enterprise. Hence, animal breeding recommendations must withstand the scrutiny of economic, as well as genetic considerations, before they are accepted and integrated into enterprises by breeders. As a consequence, a close relationship between the breeder and the science, application and theory has been nurtured.
History of Animal Breeding
• Till 500 A.D. when the fall of Roman Empire began animal breeding was at its esteem. Withthe fall of Roman Empire for about 1000 years called Dark and Middle Ages, animal husbandry was at a still.
• From 1700 A.D., again there was an improvement. The beginning of modern animal breeding is to be found mainly in England and Europe.
• The British Royalty encouraged horse breeding especially for race horses. The Earls and Dukes imported bulls from Holland and bred their native stocks. Dutch cattle were introduced into Hereford shire that laid the foundation of the present Hereford cattle. By crossing the native and Dutch cattle and subsequent inbreeding, the British cattle were improved far beyond the best.

Abstract

This chapter provides a brief overview of the key milestones in the development of bioinformatics that would help to understand the historical context and evolution of a subject. As an interdisciplinary field, bioinformatics has grown gradually from molecular biology, with the development of various algorithms, databases, and other important tools that have helped to advance computational biology. Some important events in the history of bioinformatics might include the development of the first algorithms for sequence alignment and comparison, the creation of early databases such as GenBank and Swiss- Prot, and the development of software tools for molecular modeling and drug design. Other key milestones might include the sequencing of the first genomes, the development of high-throughput sequencing technologies, and the emergence of new areas of research such as systems biology and synthetic biology. By understanding the historical context of bioinformatics, students and researchers can gain a deeper appreciation for the current state of the field and the ongoing efforts to advance our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that underlie life.

Bioinformatics encompases the use of tools and techniques from three separate disciplines; molecular biology (the source of the data to be analyzed), computer science (supplies the hardware for running analysis and the networks to communicate the results), and the data analysis algorithms, which strictly define bioinformatics. So the list below incorporates events from these areas into a brief history of the field.

Communication is a key to understand things between two people. Today’s communication is entirely different from pre-historic era and has taken many evolution throughout the years. Before alphabets, signs, symbols, letters and telephone evolved, communication was restricted to interpersonal interaction (i.e.) from one person to another in the form of gestures. It is in other terms called non-verbal communication. Today, communicating between two or more people has become too easy that one can communicate with more than 10 members at a time which is in technical means called conferencing.

The growth of internet has paved way for innumerable means of communica- tion. In other words it can be told as, communication is re-defined by technol- ogy. Texts, email, tweets, tele and video conferencing have widely saved much time of people and made them recipients of today’s fast moving world.

Preserving flowers dates back to earliest recorded history. The first evidence of use of dry flowers was when the bones of a pre historic man discovered in the Middle East were found with a mantle of delicate wild flowers. The pollen grains that remain indicated specific flowers that were used. During ancient times people used to freshen or enliven their rooms with fresh sweet smelling flowers. In the sixteenth century, when the Elizabethan Age was coming to a close, it was considered fashionable to wear silk flowers as part of one’s attire. These days flowers are dried and are versatile in their use. They supply us with food, medicines, ornaments and adornment. Flowers became essential for a fashionable appearance. Each civilization developed its own interpretation of flowers. Pressed flower art became popular in Victorian times. The Japanese use pressed plants and colorful papers to create Oshibana Art.

Insects came into existence in this world some 250 - 500 million years ago, while man appeared in this planet only about a million years ago and intruded into the domain of insects. From this time onwards, a rapport had started between the insects and man. Man considered insects obnoxious and not worth consideration in the early days. However, the real impact of insects on the activities of man became manifested to a greater extent only during the past few thousands of years. Gradually man began to understand the nature of insects and started looking at insects, both as his adversaries and as his beneficiaries. He started exploiting the useful insects for his own benefit and tried to destroy those, which are harmful to him.
 
There are numerous references in the ‘Ancient Epics’ and ‘Puranas’ such as, ‘Ramayana’, ‘Mahabharata’ etc. to show man’s acquaintance with insects even from very early days. Several references to insects are found in the ‘Holy Bible’ also. Ancient people of India were quite aware of insects, which provide honey, lac and silk. They were familiar with honeybees and gathering of honey and bee wax from hives. Honey was used in most of the religious rituals. Honey and bee wax were used in many Ayurvedic medicines against various diseases. The story of the lac palace constructed by the Cauravas to destroy the Pandavas by setting the wax palace on fire at night as narrated in Mahabharata is quite well known. The ancient Indians knew how to manufacture silk from silk thread produced by silkworms. Records show that an Indian king had sent some silken stuff to a Persian ruler even as early as in 3870 BC. References to insects such as, flies, beetles, bees, wasps, moths, ants etc. are found in old Sanskrit literature. The Ancient people also used some Mercury, Arsenic and Sulfur compounds for the control of some of the harmful insects. Numerous references to insects are found in the ‘Holy Bible’ also. King Solomon, the wise (971 BC), who ruled Israel had told his people to learn from the ways of ants, which are so active and orderly (‘Proverbs’, Chapter 6). He had mentioned as to how the ants gather and store food at the time of harvest, when food is available in plenty to be used in summer when food is scarce (‘Proverbs’, Chapter 30).