eChapters

Hormones are a group of biochemical messengers that assist in transmitting signals from one part of an organism to another. The term “hormone” was first coined by Ernest Starling in 1905 after the discovery of secretin, a chemical produced in the small intestine that regulates pancreatic secretions. In 1937 Went and Thimann defined hormones as “a substance which, produced in any one part of an organism, is transferred to another part and there influences a specific physiological process”. Since then hormones are also known as chemical messengers. These intercellular messengers are produced by specialized cells of endocrine glands, generally called effectors and released into the bloodstream thereby assisting in the regulation of physiological processes in target cells. Hormones assist in the regulation of a plethora of cell functions such as maintaining homeostasis, metabolism of biomolecules, growth, and reproductive function, and controlling blood pressure and glucose levels that are essential in orchestrating an intricate body- balance. The pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, parathyroid, and gonads (testis and ovary in males and females respectively) produce hormones. Apart from these endocrine glands, few other organs such as the kidney, heart, and liver are also involved in hormone production. The pituitary gland

Introduction

Hormones may be defined as specific chemical molecules produced in certain specific organs called specialized cells or endocrine glands. They are delivered into the blood stream or some other body fluid in minute amounts by the circulatory system of the body and their they exerts a physiological effect at a site of action remote from its origin, regulating numerous biological activities including growth, development, reproduction, water & electrolyte balance, storage & usage of energy etc.

In some developing countries, milk from horses (Equus caballus) and donkeys (Equus asinus) is an essential food for poor farmers. Generally, horses are more commonly used for dairy purposes in cool areas and donkeys in dry semi-arid regions. Milking equines is time-consuming and has to be repeated five or six times a day. In addition, an equine will not release milk unless it is stimulated by the presence of its foal. Mare’s milk is commonly consumed in the steppe areas of Central Asia, where a traditional lactic-alcoholic beverage called koumiss is produced through fermentation. Horse milk is also an important source of animal protein for pastoralists in Mongolia. The consumption of donkey milk has become very marginal. In some African communities, donkey milk is consumed for medical purposes.

Equus is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae, which includes horses, asses, and zebras. Within the Equidae, Equus is the only recognized existing genus, comprising seven living species. Like Equidae more broadly, Equus has numerous extinct species recognized only from fossils. Equines are odd-toed ungulates with slender legs, long heads, relatively long necks, manes (erect in most subspecies), and long tails. All species are herbivorous, and mostly grazers, with simpler digestive systems than ruminants but able to subsist on lower-quality vegetation. The chromosome number of a horse is 64 (2n).

16.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Asia

• Widely distributed in tropical regions of Asia and Pan tropics

• Most part of India up to 1000m elevation includes Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

16.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Seed, roots.

• Black seed variety contains L - DOPA CL - 34 dihydroxy phenylalanine non-protein amino acid.

• Used as tonic, aphrodisiac and treatment of Parkinson’s disease

• Used in rheumatic ailments.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why Oats are mostly preferred by horse?

Ans: Because oats are low in energy, rich in fibre (8-11%), very soft and easily ruptured duringmastication, highly palatable, rich in oil content (5%), better protein quality (high lysine), more readily digested in the S.I. than maize and barley and moreover it provides a more open textured material in the stomach due to high fibre and are thus least likely to cause colic compared to other cereals.

2.    Why wheat is most likely cereal to cause colic in horse?

Ans: Because of its high gluten content since gluten leads to the formation of doughy lump in the stomach. Hence wheat should not be used exceptin small quantities or in low levels.

3.    Why Excessive feeding of wheat bran leads to ‘Big head disease’ or ‘Millers disease’ in horse?

Ans: It is due to an imbalance ratio of Ca and P in this bran i.e high in P and low in Ca. So, due to a Ca deficiency, Ca is withdrawn from the bone and the bone is replaced by a proliferationof fibrous connective tissue whichismainlyfound in the skull or jaw.

Description and Distribution
A near relative of Turnip, Cabbage and Mustard. It is one of the oldest condiments, and is a well-known, large-leaved, hardy perennial in many long-established gardens. It is the thick, white, fleshy, tasty root of the Horse- Radish, which is highly prized as an appetizing condiment which goes well with many food items. A native of the marshy districts of Eastern Europe, it is grown in the USA, and to some extent in the gardens, both in the northern India and in the hill stations of the southern India. In the USA, about 7 million kilograms of Horse-Radish are processed annually for consumption as food. Cultivated over 1500 acres in the USA, its varieties are classified into two types, namely, Common and Bohemian. The Common type has, broad, crinkled leaves and produces a root of high quality. The Bohemian type has, narrow, smooth leaves, is diseaseresistant, but, yields poorer quality roots. Horse-Radish plant is highly sterile and hence is propagated asexually by the root. The tap root is tuberous and cylindrical, 30 cm long and about 18mm in diameter, possesses an acrid, pungent taste, and, when scraped or bruised, emits a characteristic pungent odor (Guenther, 1973). The root contains a pungent, acrid and vesicating volatile oil. The pungency is due to the presence of “Sinigrin”(potassium myronate), a sulfur-containing glucoside, which, in the presence of water and under the influence of an enzyme myrosinase, yields allyl mustard oil or allyl isothiocyanate, as by mustard seeds (Willstater and Stoll, 1918, Stoll and Seeback, 1948).
Area, Production and Export
Horse-Radish, being a garden crop, so far, there is no recoded data on any of the aspects of area, production and export from India.

Horticulture and allied sector are integral elements for food and nutritional security in the country. Horticulture is the main segment, while its various sub- segments are fruits, vegetables, aromatic and herbal plants, flowers, spices, tubers, plantation crops and ornamental plants. All these are regarded as essential ingredients of economic security. The wide range of agro-climatic conditions of India is conducive for growing a large variety of horticultural crops, including, root and tuber crops, mushroom and ornamental crops.

The Government of India recognized horticulture crops as a means of diversification in agriculture in an eco-friendly manner through efficient use of land and optimum utilization of natural resources. Horticulture seeks to create ample opportunities for employment, particularly for unemployed youths and women folk. India has maintained leadership in the production of many commodities like fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants and particularly in landscape business.

India is coming up in landscaping and ornamental horticulture. There is wide scope since large number of MNC and business houses have come up in India. The purchasing power of people has increased to a greater extent.

Thus, over the years, much progress are made for advancement of horticulture and allied sector. Rising investments resulted in increased production and availability of horticultural produces in the rural and urban areas. Many schemes and policies were introduced from time to time for upliftment and commercialization of the sector. Large number of investors are taking advantage of the existing potentials in the sector, as well as trying to explore the untapped potentials in the field of horticulture.

INTRODUCTION

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) play a critical role in the healthcare provision of much of the world’s population, whether they are used to make a decoction in rural Africa, to extract an alkaloid in Switzerland or as a health food supplement in the United States. MAPs are important from several perspectives like preventive and curative treatments and are source of income to underprivileged or aboriginal people who collect these herbal plants from forests or cultivate on their field. The importance and value of traditional and indigenous herbal medicine was the subject of WHO’s campaign during the 70’s, which led to an appeal to all member countries to do their utmost to preserve their national heritage in the form of ethno-medicine and ethno-pharmacology and to re-include the use of known and tested medicinal plants and derivatives into their primary health care in rural areas, as well as an alternative when modern medicine is not available.  Out of more than 400 plants species used for production of medicine by the Indian herbal industry, fewer than 20 species are currently under cultivation in different parts of the country (Uniyal et al. 2000). According to the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoepathy (AYUSH), India has 5,662 varieties of medicinal plants and of these trading takes place in 460, while 178 are exported in huge quantities (over 100 metric tonnes per year) and about 70 per cent of India’s population use traditional medicines derived from numerous plant species (Niraj et al. 2002; Saigal et al. 2002). It is estimated that in developing countries, about 90 per cent of medicinal and aromatic plants are harvested from wild while cultivated lands account only for 10 per cent of the total medicinal plants in active trade (Karki 2002). The increasing demand calls for cultivation of these valuable healers on commercial basis. However, the available land cannot be brought directly under MAPs cultivation. There is need to identify the landuse systems, already in practice, which may provide condition congenial for better growth and development of medicinal and aromatic plants as they are naturally getting in the wild. Tree plantations, fruit orchards and home gardens seems to be the viable option for commercial cultivation. Out of these fruit orchards could be more potential land use. Fruit trees have long gestation period of 8-10 years and till canopy development, the interspaces can be conveniently used for cultivation of medicinal and aromatic crops to get additional income. Even at later stages of orchard development trees have minimal adverse affect on the growth and yields of a number of medicinal plants grown as intercrops compared to the yields in the open (Nair et al. 1989), in some instances there may be reduction of yield of MAPs and fruit component, but the combined returns from both the components are greater than from sole cultivation. This temporal scale is even more in case of shade loving medicinal and aromatic plants. Peasants prefer fruit trees on their farms (Raintree 1992; Franzel et al. 1996) with perspective of contribution to consumption (Salam et al. 2000) and income generation (Ayuk et al. 1999; Delobel et al. 1991). Thus, these components are well thought-out to be beneficial due to low labour input and comparatively high returns round the year. This chapter presents a brief review of growth, yield and economic viability of such tree-crop combinations and further explore their potential under fruit tree based horti-medicinal agroforestry systems.

Introduction

In India ,the increasing demographic pressure with developmental activities are causing tremendous pressure in utilization of natural resources leading to various kinds of ecological problems and land degradation. The Govt. of India has for long considers watersheds as catalysts for development activities in rain-fed areas. Watershed, simple stated as a manageable hydrological unit. Watershed development approach calls for an integrated effort of many courts, viz, area development, resource identification and management programme- planning, implementation and evaluation and also the disciplines and functionary involved. An integrated approach in watershed management, the development of agricultural land alone is not the criteria, but the development of the entire area covering a watershed from highest point (ridgeline) to outlet of the Nalah or natural stream will have to be considered.  For scientific development of watershed area, all natural resources such as water, land, human, vegetation, livestock, wildlife etc. have to properly identified, quantified, and appropriately utilized.

HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

The Horticultural crops are majorly classified on the basis of its consumption and uses as fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, medicinal, aromatic and plantation crops. Moreover, these crops have been further classified into various groups on the basis of their habitat, growth pattern, edapho-climatic requirements and uses. All branches of horticulture classified specifically as hereunder:

A Classification of fruits

1. Based on Climatic adaptability
   1. Tropical fruits: These fruit crops are grown in tropical climatic regions which are geographically located between the parallels of 23° 27' South (Tropic of Capricorn) and 23° 27' North (Tropic of the Cancer) of the equator. They are generally evergreen and very sensitive to cold. Eg. Mango, Pineapple, Banana, Papaya, Citrus, Sapota, Avocado etc.
   2. Sub-tropical fruits: Fruit crops are grown in between temperate and tropical climatic regions. They may be either deciduous or evergreen nature. Eg. Mango, guava, citrus, durian, jackfruit, bread fruit etc.

1.1 Introduction

The word ‘horticulture’ was first used in 1600’s, and is derived from two Latin words, ‘hortus’(garden) and ‘cultûra’(cultivation), and it means ‘the culture (cultivation) of garden plants’. Relf (1992) defined “horticulture as an applied science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices, nuts, tubers, aromatic and medicinal plants, plantation crops, mushrooms and ornamental plants which include shrubs, flowering plants and turfs stimulating minds, spirits and emotions of individuals, enriching health and wellness of communities, and linking human beings to nature and its landscaped exteriors for wellness and wellbeing”. Fruits and vegetables are nourishing and protective foods. It has been recognized that fruits are a rich source of antioxidants which protect us from dreadful diseases. Vegetables and fruits contain vitamin E, K, and  carotene in addition to minerals like zinc, copper and manganese. To meet the ever-increasing demand of the country for fruits, vegetables, tubers, spices, flowers, ornamentals etc., we must strive hard to deliver better cultivars in as many aspects as possible to the society so that human beings will be in sound health physically as well as mentally. To achieve this goal plant breeding in general, and horticultural plant breeding in particular will come to our help.

Introduction

The simultaneous cultivation of two or more crops in the same field is known as intercropping. Sustainable agriculture aims to at least build agricultural systems that are inspired by nature. Efficiency and the idea that there are no waste products in nature are key components of sustainable agriculture since nature incorporates plants and animals into a variety of landscapes. When domesticating crops replaced hunting and gathering, the landscape became altered. Due to humankind’s limited ability to produce a wide variety of agricultural plants and livestock, the amount of biological diversity throughout a large portion of the planet has significantly decreased. In nature, cooperation predominates over competition. Mutually beneficial interactions between species within groups are one example of cooperation. A few types of creatures may initially inhabit an abandoned agricultural field if it is left unattended and unplanted, but over several years, a complex community made up of numerous wild species emerges. When a community reaches a high level of variety, it becomes stable. Diverse communities are stable and have fewer swings in species abundance. Enterprise diversification, crop rotation, the use of windbreaks, the provision of more habitats for microorganisms, intercropping, and the integration of crop farming with animal production are methods that increase diversity and stability on the farm (Reddy and Willey,1981; Reddy et al., 1992). Each crop should have enough room while growing with another one or more to enhance cooperation and minimize competition. This is made possible by the elements of spatial layout, plant density, crop maturity dates, and plant architecture. The spatial arrangements are Row intercropping— Growing two or more crops together at the same time with at least one crop planted in rows; Strip intercropping— Growing two or more crops together in strips wide enough to separate crop production using machines, but close enough to interact; Mixed cropping— Growing two or more crops together in no distinct row arrangement; Relay intercropping— Plant a second crop into a standing crop at a time when the standing crop is at its reproductive stage but before harvesting.

These three components—horticultural crops, agroforestry systems, and aquaculture—play a significant role in diversifying agriculture, increasing income, and promoting sustainability in farming-based livelihood systems
across India. Horticultural crops, agroforestry systems, aquaculture, duck/ poultry cum fish, and dairy cum - all describe different farming systems, often with a focus on integration and diversification. Here’s a breakdown of each: • Horticultural Crops: This refers to the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, flowers, and ornamental plants. It’s a broad category encompassing many different specific crops and growing techniques. Horticulture includes the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, condiments, and medicinal plants. These crops are high-value, laborintensive, and contribute significantly to nutritional security, income generation, and employment creation, especially for smallholders and women. Examples: Mango, banana, guava, brinjal, tomato, onion, rose, marigold, turmeric.
Advantages
• High market demand and export potential.
• Year-round employment opportunities.
• Improves diet diversity and nutrition.

1. Introduction

India’s horticulture sector stands as a beacon of promise and potential within the agricultural landscape, showcasing a rich diversity of fruits, vegetables, tubers, spices, flowers, medicinal and ornamental plants as well as herbs. This sector provides livelihoods for millions of farmers and plays a crucial role in ensuring food security and nutritional well-being. Amidst the challenges posed by climate change and environmental degradation, the resilience of horticultural crops becomes increasingly significant. Diversifying towards resilient crops and sustainable practices not only mitigates risks but also enhances the sector’s adaptability to changing climatic conditions. Investment in research and development to breed climate-resilient varieties and promote agroecological approaches is imperative. Furthermore, promoting organic and niche horticulture products presents exciting opportunities for Indian farmers to capture premium markets both domestically and internationally. With growing consumer awareness and demand for healthy and nutritionally rich food, India’s horticulture sector is well-positioned to become a global leader in organic and exotic produce.The recent trend of exploring new crops within Indian horticulture promises to diversify farmers’ income sources and address emerging challenges such as climate change and shifting consumer preferences.

Key words : Horticultural Resource Information System. INARIS.

Introduction

Wide ranging Indian climatic conditions are well suited for boosting production of a variety of horticultural crops (fruits, vegetables, flower/ornamental/medicinal and aromatic crops) which presently hold an important position in the global scenario. Development was at a very low ebb till the Third Five-Year Plan and increased significantly since the Seventh Five Year Plan (Rs.10,000 millions plan outlay). Government of India established National Horticultural Board (NHB) in 1984 and Agriculture and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) in 1986 to facilitate its larger development. The outlay is expected to increase even more in the Tenth Plan. Significant progress has been made in area expansion of different horticultural crops resulting in higher production. Besides, use of modern technologies has also brought about improvement in productivity. More than 50 per cent increase in production is seen in many of the horticulture crops during last one decade.

The efficient planning and implementation of different developmental programs on horticultural crops depends on production parameters like soil suitability, varietals dominance, marketable surplus, marketing channels, post harvest handling practices, cost of cultivation and market availability for sustained production. In addition, information on latest technologies developed by various research organizations on horticultural improvement, production, protection and post-harvest technologies are needed to be collected and made available to the scientists, planners and managers working in the related fields. But the available information on this aspect is scattered and the database is too weak to provide adequate support for developmental strategies. The digitization of comprehensive database on horticultural crops will definitely enhance the pace of increasing the area, production, productivity and promoting industry of horticultural crops that have taken lead in the new millennium with reference to nutritional quality of food and export potential. A strong, well-knit database to support need-based, market-driven and cost-effective horticultural development is imperative. Therefore, under National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) a Mission Mode Sub-project on “Integrated National Agricultural Resources Information System (INARIS)” has been taken up to evolve a comprehensive computerized data management system on various agricultural resources like crops, animals, fishes and natural resources by harnessing RDBMS and GIS. The Co-operating Center at Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore has developed the “Horticultural Resources Information System” with the objectives of (i) integrating existing databases in horticulture, (ii) designing and developing a comprehensive database in horticulture and (iii) developing resource maps of major horticultural crops in the country by integrating attribute and spatial data through GIS. In addition to simple storage and retrieval it will include other functions such as manipulation and dissemination of information to various users. This database will be integrated with 13 other Co-operating Centers dealing with different agricultural resources through a virtual private network (VPN). The Lead Center at Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi provide warehouse facility with a capability to analyze the data variously and provide report as cubes, tables and graphs to form a national database to cater to the needs of the users through a website. The facility of retrieving information as value-added maps using GIS will also be built in.

5.1 Introduction

A system is a group of interacting components, operating together for a common purpose, capable of reacting as a whole to external stimuli; it is unaffected directly by its own outputs and has a specified boundary based on the inclusion of all significant feedbacks. For example, the human body is a system — it has a boundary (e.g., the skin) enclosing a number of components (heart, lungs) that interact (the heart pumps blood to the lungs) for a common purpose (to maintain and operate the living body) (Rana and Rana 2011).The main aim of orchard management in tropical and sub-tropical fruits, is to increase land use efficiency by use of inter-crops, multiple crops, multi-storeyed crops systems etc. in obtaining maximum income from the available land. Apart from these, cover crops, sod culture, herbicides, minimum tillage etc. are also common.

5.1.1 Cropping Systems

It is an important component of a farming system that represents a cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology, which determine their makeup.

Horticulture is an art and science of growing plants. It is the practice of engaging ailing people in various horticultural activities such as gardening and flower arrangements in order to improve their physical, mental and spiritual health. Research confirms that health benefits escalate manifold when people connect with nature and plants by viewing and/or interacting with them. Major benefits of horticultural therapy includes sensory simulation and mood enhancement, mental relaxation, improvement of memory and concentration and an overall feeling of wellness. Horticulture therapy also helps in cultivating positive emotions and provides a meditative mood. It eases both physical and emotional pains and also improves social skills. It is proven that a simple viewing of a garden benefits a person both physically and mentally.

This practice has been used as therapy for centuries. In 1798, Dr. Benjamin Rush, considered as the “Father of American Psychiatry” documented that gardening has positive effects on mentally ill patients. Following World War, II gardening was used as a form of occupational therapy for war veterans. The concept of using nature to improve human health began to gain credibility in 1970’s. Rachel and Stephen Kaplan (1989) found that natural environments had relaxing and restoration benefits for people. The Journal of Therapeutic Horticulture, a peer-reviewed publication of the American Horticultural Therapy Association, has published authentic research papers since 1986. The American Horticultural Therapy Association (AHTA) serves to promote and advance horticultural therapy as a therapeutic intervention and rehabilitative approach. Degrees and certificate programs in horticultural therapy are offered at several colleges and universities and information is available on AHTA website.

Horticultural therapy is a worldwide practice and recognized as an effective treatment for clients of all ages and abilities. It is being used in several diverse settings including hospitals, rehabilitation centres, youth outreach and recovery programs, nursing homes, senior care facilities, prisons, mental health facilities, schools, botanical gardens etc. The client is engaged in horticultural activities facilitated by some trained therapists to achieve specific and documented goals. AHTA believes that horticultural therapy is an active process that occurs in the context of an established treatment plan where the process itself is considered as the therapeutic activity rather than the end product.

Horticulture therapy is a growing profession in rehabilitation and addiction centers, vocational centers, youth mental health programs, hospitals and nursing homes, and old age homes or senior citizen centers, mental health centers, schools and colleges.

Introduction

Nowadays, horticultural fields are expanding due to the increasing demand for various utilizations. Increased production is leading to an increase in exports. The global horticulture market value of about 20.77 billion USD was estimated in 2021 and targeted to attain 40.24 billion USD by 2026 (Global Market Estimates, 2021). From the production of horticultural foods, various factors are involved in the hazardous environmental appearance. Uncontrolled use of pesticides and residual effects of various chemicals initiate the primary threats to nature by creating a negative impact on soil, water, humans, animals, and wildlife species too (Sanchez-Bayo, 2011). Alone agricultural practices are not responsible for the production of horticultural wastes some other aspects are also included such as horticultural food processing industries as well as urban and peri-urban wastes. Food processing is an important sector of agriculture. Being highly perishable horticultural food processing became more necessary to increase the self-life as well as the value addition of these crops. But at the same time, these food processing industries where several processes such as production, processing, and preparation of food take place again result in the generation of huge quantities of waste material causing health hazards due to environmental pollution. The huge waste of food is due to a lack of control and ignorance of higher officials in this agro-economic sector. Another important source where waste management is equally important is Urban and peri-urban areas. Being a sink for horticultural produce (raw or processed) creates huge waste at the same time. The urban population is increasing between 3% and 3.5% per annum and the yearly increase in waste generation is around 5% annually (Agarwal et al., 2005).

The Indian subcontinent is bestowed with a great variety of climate and soil conditions. Broadly the country can be divided into tropical, subtropical and temperate regions, within each broad category there are differences due to rainfall, humidity, altitude etc. Considering these aspects six different horticultural zones have been identified so that appropriate choice of the crops can be made and development is planned. They are;

Temperate: Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, North Uttarakhand, Sikkim and part of Arunachal Pradesh.

N.W. Subtropical: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Central Uttar Pradesh and North Madhya Pradesh.

N.E. Subtropical: Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur.

Central tropical: South Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa and West Bengal.

Southern tropical: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

Coastal tropical humid: Konkan, Goa, Kerala, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa.