eChapters

13.1 Introduction

Hospitality industry is the second largest industry in the world. It is well diversified and can be chosen as per the interest. Hospitality management involves planning, organizing, directing and controlling human and other resources within the different segments of hospitality industry i.e. lodging, restaurant, travel and tourism, institutional management, recreational management, meeting and convention planning industries. Although, these all are separate but related segments of the hospitality industry and are interrelated to provide good and efficient services to the guests and users. Hospitality industry provides services which are need oriented and differ in various parts of the world as per regions and the traditional styles.

The first building created specifically for hotel was ‘City Hotel’ with 73 rooms at 115 Broadway, New York in 1794. Pallonjee Pestonjee established the very first western-style hotel in India, “The Bristol Hotel” in Mumbai in 1840. According to the report of the department of Tourism, Government of India, at the end of the year 2004, there were 167 Five star hotels with approx. 28,900 rooms, whereas 126 Four star hotels, with 8,831 rooms [2]. To expedite the ongoing process of classification/re-classification of functioning hotels in one to three star categories, five Regional Committees have also been set up in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Guwahati and Chennai to conduct inspection [3].

Abstract

Cultivated cucurbitaceous plants viz., pumpkin, Cucurbita moschata Duch ex Poir.; karingada, Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.); ridge gourd, Luffa acutangula Roxb.; sponge gourd, Luffa cylindrica Roemer and cucumber, Cucumis sativus (L.) and wild cucurbitaceous plants viz., little gourd, Coccinia grandis (L.); kan kareli, Momordica charantia (L.); Gothamada, Cucumis callosus (Rott.) Cogr.; tutar vela, Luffa acutangula (L.); tumada, Citrullus colocynthis (L.); kankoda, Momordica dioica Roxb. and ankhfooti, Trichosanthes bracteata (Lam.) were recorded as hosts of fruit flies in Banaskantha district of north Gujarat. Melon fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae and Ethiopian fruit fly, Dacus ciliatus were the major fruit fly species infesting these cucurbitaceous plant. The relative abundance of both the species were almost the same in cultivated hosts whereas, D. ciliatus was more abundant in wild hosts.

To reduce the dependence on hazardous pesticides in modern agriculture, one of the most promising ways is to use insect-resistant cultivars. When available, planting resistant cultivars is one of our most effective, economically viable and environmentally sound tactics. The underlying concept of using host resistance to our advantage comes from the knowledge that most plants and animals are resistant to most potential insect attackers.

To reduce the dependence on hazardous pesticides in modern agriculture, one of the most promising ways is to use insect-resistant cultivars. When available, planting resistant cultivars is one of our most effective, economically viable and environmentally sound tactics. The underlying concept of using host resistance to our advantage comes from the knowledge that most plants and animals are resistant to most potential insect attackers. Certain physiological, morphological, and/or behavioural characteristics inherited by organisms form a core of defense against species that would otherwise attack them (Pedigo, 2002).

Plant diseases caused by microbial pathogens have been managed by using different methods which need to be applied every year or season, when the susceptible cultivars are grown. These methods are grouped as nongenetic methods, since no change in the host genome can be expected, when physical, chemical, cultural or biological control methods are employed. On the hand, if a change in the host genome is accomplished by either conventional breeding techniques or by biotechnological procedures, the progeny may show higher level of resistance to the target pathogen (s). The genotype or cultivar thus generated will show resistance during subsequent seasons till a new race of pathogen capable of overcoming the effects of resistance gene(s) is produced. Disease management through host resistance is considered as the most preferable option because of several advantages. Crop production is less expensive ; there is no need to apply any procedure for every crop season ; and chances of environmental pollution are absent, when a crop cultivar resistant to the disease (s) is grown. In addition, the build up of pathogen population is progressively reduced. Management of diseases by cultivating resistant varieties may be more effective and economical, if the benefits accumulating over a period of time and enlarging area with lapse of time are taken into consideration.

Definition

Those characters that enable a plant to avoid tolerate or recover from attacks of pathogens under conditions that would cause greater injury to other plants of the same species.

INTRODUCTION

Plant pathogens can spread rapidly over great distances, vectored by water, wind, insects, and humans. Across large regions and many crop species, it is estimated that diseases typically reduce plant yields by 10% every year in more developed nations or agricultural systems, but yield loss to diseases often exceeds 20% in less developed settings, an estimated 15% of global crop production.

Disease control is reasonably successful for most crops. Disease control is achieved by use of plants that have been bred for good resistance to many diseases, and by plant cultivation approaches such as crop rotation, pathogen- free seed, appropriate planting date and plant density, control of field moisture and pesticide use. However, the most attractive form of control is provided by disease resistance, for as long as it remains effective, it provides protection at no cost to the farmers or the community. So plant resistance is a highly useful strategy that can be applied in the control of diseases. It does not require any special action from growers and constitute cheap and practical input in the integrated disease management system. The use of resistant varieties cannot only ensure protection against diseases but also save the time, energy and money spent on other measures of control. In addition to these advantages, resistant varieties, if evolved, can be the only practical method of control of such diseases as viruses, phytoplasmas wilts, and rusts etc. in which chemical control is very expensive and impractical. In crops of low cash value, chemical and other methods of control are often too expensive to be applied. In such crops development of varieties resistant to important diseases can be an acceptable recommendation for the farmer.

Definition of Host Plant Resistance (HPR)
Those characters that enable a plant to avoid, tolerate or recover from attacks of pathogens under conditions that would cause greater injury to other plants of the same species.
or
Those heritable characteristics possessed by the plant which influence the ultimate degree of loss done by the disease.
or
The inherent ability of an organism (i.e., the crop plant) to resist or withstand the pathogen is called resistance
Classification of Resistance
Each plant species is affected by hundreds of kinds of pathogen. Frequently a single plant is attacked by hundreds of individuals of a pathogen. Yet, those plants survive which are resistant, adapting a number of mechanisms classified variously.
1. Based on existence
a. Preformed
When the resistance is already present in the plant even I the absence of the pathogen, it is known as preformed, axenic or passive

Non-mulberry plants, sometimes referred to as Vanya plants, are important to the sericulture sector because they give silkworms—which are normally fed mulberry leaves—an alternate source of nutrition. Many species, including castor (Ricinus communis), oak (Quercus spp.) and arjun (Terminalia arjuna), are among these non-mulberry plants. These plants are a food source for a distinct species of silkworm known as Eri, Tasar and Muga silk, which are distinct from the common mulberry silkworm, Bombyx mori. These silks are prized for their unique properties, hues and textures which add to the variety and depth of silk goods on the market.
3.2 Host Plants
3.2.1 Host Plants for Tasar Silkworms
The traditional tasar and the oak tasar are now two separate entities within the Indian tasar culture. Terminalia and Shorea dominate the traditional tasar tract, with Quercus oaks (as the name suggests) dominating the latter.
Although tasar silkworms are actually polyphagous, there is some specificity in terms of their affinity for a given feeding source.
Taxonomy: A. mylitta feeds primarily on Asan (Terminalia tomentosa,
Fig.3.1), Arjun (Terminalia arjuna, Fig.3.2) and Sal (Shorea robusta, Fig.3.3), while A. proylei is mainly reared on Uyung (Quercus serrata, Fig. 3.4), Banj (Quercus incana, Fig. 3.5), Sahi (Quercus dealbata, Fig. 3.6) and Moru
(Quercus himalayana, Fig. 3.7). Being important for tasar industry, these three genera (Terminalia, Shorea and Quercus) the silkworm feeds on Phutuka (Melastoma, Fig. 3.8) and Bogori (Zizyphus jujuba, Fig. 3.9).

Host resistance refers to the inherent ability of plants to defend themselves against disease-causing pathogens. Instead of relying on external inputs such as chemicals or biological controls, plants themselves possess mechanisms that enable them to resist or tolerate infections. Developing and utilizing resistant crop varieties has become a cornerstone of sustainable disease management, offering long-term protection with fewer inputs.
This chapter delves into the concept of host resistance, its importance in disease management, the types of resistance, and the strategies used to breed disease-resistant varieties.
Concept of Host Resistance
Host resistance is the natural or acquired ability of a plant to either completely prevent pathogen infection or minimize the impact of infection. This trait has evolved in plants as a defense mechanism against various pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, and other parasites. While chemical and cultural controls offer external disease management solutions, host resistance operates from within the plant.
Key aspects of host resistance include
1. Prevention of Pathogen Entry: Resistant plants may prevent pathogens from entering their tissues by forming physical or biochemical barriers.
2. Limitation of Pathogen Growth: Once pathogens have penetrated, the plant’s immune system may slow or stop their spread, minimizing damage.

Entomopathogenic / Entomophilic / Insecticidal/ Entomogenous nematodes can be found in the orders Aphelenchida, Ascaridida, Mermithida, Oxyurida, Rhabditida, Spirurida and Tylenchida. Phylogenetic relationships reveal that nematodes have established trophic associations with insects numerous times (Adams and Nguyen, 2008). Nematodes may have a proclivity (exaptation) for negotiating the natural defenses of insects and their associations with insects are tremendously fruitful (ecologically and evolutionarily).
3.1 Evolution of Parasitism in Insect-transmitted Plant Nematodes
Nematode-insect associations have evolved many times in the phylum Nematoda, but these lineages involve plant parasitism only in the Secernentean orders Aphelenchida and Tylenchida. In the Aphelenchida (Aphelenchoidoidea), Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Pine wood nematode), B. cocophilus (Red ring or Coconut palm nematode) (Parasitaphelenchidae), and the many potential host-specific species of Schistonchus (fig nematodes) (Aphelenchoididae) nematode-insect interactions probably evolved independently from dauerforming, mycophagous ancestors that were phoretically transmitted to breeding sites of their insect hosts in plants (Giblin-Davis et al., 2003). Mycophagy probably gave rise to facultative or obligate plant-parasitism because of opportunities due to insect host switches or peculiarities in host behavior. In the Tylenchida, there is one significant radiation of insect-associated plant parasites involving Fergusobia nematodes (Fergusobiinae: Neotylenchidae) and Fergusonina (Fergusoninidae) flies as mutualists that gall myrtaceous plant buds or leaves. These dicyclic nematodes have different phases that are parasitic in either the insect or the plant hosts. The evolutionary origin of this association is unclear.

1. Host-Pathogen Recognition

· Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs) Plants have receptors that can recognize conserved molecules on pathogens, called PAMPs (e.g., bacterial flagellin). This triggers a basal defense response called PAMP Triggered Immunity (PTI).

· Effector Proteins Pathogens secrete effector proteins into plant cells to suppress PTI and facilitate infection. Plants have evolved resistance (R) proteins that can recognize specific effector proteins, leading to a stronger defense response called Effector-Triggered Immunity (ETI).

2. Genesis of Interaction

· Entry Pathogens enter plants through natural openings (stomata, hydathodes) or wounds. Some can directly penetrate plant tissues using specialized structures or enzymes.

· Colonization Once inside, pathogens multiply and spread within plant tissues, often utilizing enzymes to break down cell walls and obtain nutrients.

· Manipulation of Host Pathogens manipulate host physiology through effector proteins, suppressing defense, and altering hormone signaling, and redirecting resources to support their growth.

Host -Pathogen Interaction

Most often, plants become diseased when attacked by living (biotic) or affected by non-living (abiotic) pathogens.

In the first case, at least two components viz., host and pathogen must come into contact and interact for plant disease to occur.

Then, for disease to develop, a third factor, a favorable range of environmental conditions, must also occur.

The interaction of the three disease factors was often visualized as a triangle called the “Disease Triangle".

Each side of the triangle represents one of three components.

Abstract

Thermophiles mainly harbor in highly temperate environments such as hydrothermal vents, hot springs, fumaroles etc. The main importance of thermophiles is due to their thermostable proteins, enzymes and their adaptive mechanisms at higher temperature which are very useful for industrial applications. The main rationale behind this research was to isolate industrially important thermophilic bacteria from the Hot Springs of Sikkim which can be used as tools for genetic engineering and vector based research activities.

House Plants refer a group of ornamental plants, both foliage and fowering, used for decoration of house interiors besides verandahs, corridors, porch, stairs, window sills etc. These are of various categories namely trees (juvenile), shrubs, herbs, bulbous, rhizomatus and other shade loving plants. House plants are generally grown in pots and displayed for making interiors delightful and cosy. In addition, such arrangements enhance the architectural beauty of the buildings. These are easily shifted from one place to another as per display plan. Moreover, option of changing the whole lot with a new set provides opportunity to create a new look of the site.

Foliage type house plants with their exquisite leaves, colour, variegation and uniqueness add grandeur to the interiors. On the otherhand, flowering ones having a spectrum of flower colour, are added attraction for beautifying relatively lighted areas of house. House plants are also grown as bedded plants in the gardens where ground space is available.

Successful growing of house plants depends on right selection of species considering climatic conditions, proper placement and maintenance. The main purpose is to make interiors decorative and lively. In addition to the aesthetic effect, house plants make the interiors more humid and cool. Besides, they absorb pollutants and supply oxygen. In cities, space for outdoor gardening attached to the house has almost vanished due to non-availability of land and high cost. As a result, popularity of growing house plants has increased manifold. Display of house plants is also a regular practice in other places like offices, institutes, banks, hospitals, factories, hotels etc. as these create an ambient working atmosphere besides beautification.

House plants play an integral role in providing decorative value and aesthetic sense to the place. They are important component of interiorscaping and provides softscape. House plants are also considered as natural air filters as they provide freshness and many house plants are reported to absorb many house pollutants. The demand of house plants are generating many employment opportunities like plant rental services, interiorscaping etc. The house plants are preferred in homes, offices, hospitals, multiplexes etc.

Placement

These attractive house plants rightly deserve their place as interior decorations. “Shade loving” is an adjective often used to describe house plants, but this is a misnomer, Plants may be shade tolerant but they do not actually seek poor light. Diffused light through the glasses or windows’ can be effective you can supplement the suns’ rays with artificial light in the form of a “warm white” fluorescent tube. Then may be shifting them after frequent intervals in the open for a short duration in morning hours to supplement the sunlight during winter months and leaving them out overnight and bringing them after exposing them to early morning sunlight during hot months exposure for a desired time frame in the monsoon are some of the effective methods to make your house plants feel happier.

Insect and non-insect pests cause extensive damage to standing crops, stored grains and stored products resulting in huge economic loss. Besides these, several pests cause annoyance, as well as attack livestock such as, cattle, poultry and pet animals. Some others damage household articles such as, clothing, upholstery, carpets, paper, books, leather articles, wooden and bamboo furniture and all sorts of wooden structures. These obnoxious creatures besides consuming any kind of food materials, spoil them by contaminating and polluting them with their faecal matter and urine and impart a repulsive, bad odor and make them unfit for consumption by humans and livestock. The damages caused by them pave the way for easy access and infection by some of the saprophytic microorganisms, which hasten the deterioration process. A few of these microorganisms produce mycotoxins, which are poisonous and may even be fatal to the consumers.

Among the household pests, cockroaches, crickets, silver fish, ants, white ants, carpet and powder post beetles and clothes moths are quite important. These insects not only cause annoyance but different types of flies, mosquitoes, bugs, fleas and lice either suck and feed on the blood from humans, cattle, poultry etc. but are also responsible for disseminating several disease causing microorganisms.

Appliances which help or assist in doing household work as cooking, cleaning and food preservation are known as equipments. A equipment also referred to as a domestic appliance or an electric appliance or a household appliance.

Rabbits: Housed in mesh floor cages made of galvanized iron, aluminium or steel.

Cleaning should be done regularly (but not within the animal room). Clean feed, water should be given to animals to keep them free of diseases.

Guinea pig: In case of guinea pig, environmental factors play a very important role → Temperature, relative humidity, lighting and ventilation.

Temp → 18-21°C for all laboratory animals

Relative Humidity → 45-55%

Lighting → 12-16 hours for normal physiological activity.

Ventilation → Min 12-15 changes of air for animal room. This can be provided with the help of exhaust fan.

For guinea pig, temperature should not go beyond 30°C, because they cannot dissipate heat from body and they suffer from heat stress and heat frustration because they have loose fold of skin. Highly susceptible for respiratory infection, so adequate ventilation should be given.

They can be housed on wire mesh, floor, and cages. Also directly on floor provided with bedding material → paddy/ ragi straw. In some animal facilities they give saw dust as bedding material. For Guinea Pig saw dust should be given as bedding material as they get adhered to vulva that causes irritation and also it blocks the vulva. There will be reduction in fecundity of the animal →worst