eChapters

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Researchers interested in taking up research have initial difficultes in picking up a problem worth for investigation. At time they waste considérable amount of time in just thinking about the pros and cons of problems suggested by some ones or identified by himself/herself. It is basically due to misunderstanding about "what is research". Usual notion about research is that it must resuit in something spectacular or it must come up with a new discovery or theory. It must be pointed out that a study which brings forward new facts, or which demolishes or establishes a hypothesis or a theory or principal already in vogue, or which puts a variety of information in to order or system, or which prepares ground for further research is as valid as one which ends with a new discovery. The best research problem for researcher is one which arises from the researcher's own curiosity. The only thing is that researcher must know the tools which can handle the problems he proposed to take up. Before choosing for a problem for research one should as question to himself: is this problem really of interest to me?; Is it significant in the sense that it extends the frontiers of knowledge or fills an important gap in knowledge?; Can I handle this problem within the constraints of resources of money, time etc?; has this problem not been investigated by someone else? A good research proposai describes situation of problem, problem area, justification, methodology adopted for data collection, analysis, expected results and institution/ organisation that may use the outcome.

Abstract

Human Resource Management (HRM) is an essential function of every organization. Information Technology (IT) application has made such ‘human resource management’ function easy, to a great extent. Now a day, IT has been used widely across the organizations to perform different functions like, Recruitment, training, maintenance and development etc. Human Resource Information System (HRIS) is one of the latest contributions of IT to the area of human resource management, which is going to revolutionise management in 21st Century. Technology has brought changes in the existing working styles of organisations. By the introduction of HRIS, it enhances the efficiency of the organisation by changing the traditional way of working. In Human Resource Information Systems, many organizations use employee data in traditional ways. These can create conflict with the rights and interests of employees, with external stakeholders, and with society at large. The present paper discusses such issues. Other soft issues like, challenges and possible solutions are also discussed.

Human activities significantly impact river ecosystems, altering fish populations and biodiversity through pollution, habitat modification, overfishing, climate change, invasive species, and unsustainable water use. Pollution introduces chemical contaminants, nutrients, and plastics that compromise fish health, reproduction, and survival, while eutrophication and thermal pollution exacerbate these effects. Habitat modifications such as dam construction and deforestation fragment ecosystems and reduce habitat quality, impairing fish migration and spawning. Overfishing and advancements in fishing technology further deplete stocks, while climate change disrupts thermal habitats, alters flow regimes, and endangers fish populations. Invasive species and aquaculture operations exacerbate biodiversity loss, while water extraction for human consumption reduces river flow and habitat availability. Mitigation strategies, including habitat restoration, sustainable fishing practices, pollution control, and climate adaptation, are critical to sustaining river fish populations. This chapter highlights the complex interactions between human activities and river ecosystems, emphasizing the urgent need for sustainable management practices to ensure ecological resilience and biodiversity conservation.

1 Human and Animal Interactions in the Ecosystem
1.1 Evolution

It is proved that humans and animals share common ancestors as per evolution process. Thus, it is likely that, animal capacities are similar to humans, but these capacities differ only in degree. Furthermore, if the capacity for a particular feeling gives an adaptive advantage to an animal, then this provides supportive evidence for its existence. The presence of very similar neurological structures in other animals constitutes some sort of evidence that they can have the same sorts of mental states as humans. In the process of evolution depending on the favourable and unfavourable environmental factors, few organisms may die and few organisms might multiply. The relationship between biotic and abiotic components helps in the formation of ecosystem. In this ecosystem each and every organisms have equal chance to survive. The evolution process is well explained by Darwin’s theory.

Abstract

Hundreds of bacterial taxa makes up human gut microbiota and it is comprised primarily of anaerobes belonging to four main phyla which are Firmicutes, Bacteriodetes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria. Anaerobes colonizes the human body, including oral cavity, small intestine, vagina, skin but the majority of them are housed in the colon. The composition and distribution anaerobes varies along the length of gastrointestinal tract because of variation in oxygen gradient, anatomy of intestinal tract and other host physiological factors. Human gets colonized by anaerobes during the birth and these initial colonizers have impact on infant’s health status. The colonization and development of the gut microbiome is responsive to variety of factors including the mode of delivery, feeding methods, environment etc. The human gut microbiota plays an important role in healthy status of host. It plays an important role in nutrient metabolism and absorption, synthesis of vitamins and production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). In turn these metabolites have positive effect on host immunity and overall host fitness. Studying, the anaerobes using culturing method remains critical in microbiology. However, culturomics approach, combined with sequencing technology, provides new insights in studying anaerobes of human gut microbiota. In this chapter we have discussed that, how human gut is an ideal habitat for the colonization and growth of anaerobes and their impact on host health. We also tried to shed light on latest technical advancement in sequencing culturing technology and their application in studying gut anaerobes.

Abstract

Human milk is the dynamic fluid provides initial and essential nutrients to the neonates and play key role in development and growth of infant gut microflora, nerve system, immunity system and other organs. Composition of human milk varies with number of factors from geographical location, individual habits, stage and period of lactation to mature or pre mature born of infant. Each component and its bioavailability in human milk plays specific function in infant nourishment. Protein and non-protein nitrogenous compounds of milk provides essential bioactive component required for preventing infants form many diseases and develop immunity. Nucleotides involve in many enzymatic and metabolic activities. Milk contains 3.0 to 5.0% fat act as a major source of energy consisting of larger portion of triglycerides. Essential fatty acid of milk important for nerve system development in infant. Additionally, fat soluble vitamins plays in sight and immune development for new-born. A Human Milk Oligosaccharide is natural prebiotic present in human milk which helps in growth of bifidus bacteria and prevent respiratory tract infection in infants. Furthermore, micro components like vitamins, mineral, enzymes involved in various essential activity lead to healthy infant.

Food, Water and Air are three essential elements for existence and sustenance of life. Primarily food is manufactured by the plants by trapping the energy of Sun in presence of carbondioxide and water. Foods can be broadly classified into energy foods and protective foods. While energy is required for all bodily functions, protective foods confer a degree of resistance against diseases, corrects some disorder and prevents occurrence of certain conditions that occur due to deficiency of certain elements and phytochemicals. The balanced diets are said to be those which have an appropriate amount of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. All these three components play certain essential role in the process of metabolism. Deficiency or insufficiency of these major food components may lead to energy deficient disease conditions and are considered responsible for malnutrition world wide. Energy deficiency can threaten the existence of life. Food grains, tubers and roots are major sources of carbohydrates, and proteins. Sufficient intake of carbohydrates, proteins and fats alone does not ensure health. Health and wellbeing are the two important aspects of life, which makes it worth living. For being healthy, besides energy, body requires minerals and vitamins which are present mainly in fruits and vegetables. The role phytochemicals play in cleansing the body and fight against diseases, was understood quite recently. Therefore, for a healthy life we need to consume a balanced diet comprising of appropriate amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fruits, vegetables and nuts. While the former three can be consumed based on the energy requirement of an individual, one should consume at least 180 and 300 grams of fruits and vegetables respectively everyday.

Introduction

Nutrition, a basic human need, is a critical part of health and development. Nutrition can be defined as the intake of food, deliberated in relation to the body’s dietary needs. On one hand, good nutrition – an adequate, well balanced diet combined with regular physical activity – is a foundation of good health, whereas,poor nutritionleads toreducedproductivity,impairedmental andphysical development, increased susceptibility to disease, and reducedimmunity. According to WHO, under-nutrition, together with vitamin and mineral deficiencies accounts for one-third of all child deaths and impairs healthy development and lifelong productivity. At the same time, sedentary lifestyles, demographic shifts, urbanization and the liberalization of markets have steered the world population to being overweight along with risk of chronic diseases like hypertension, dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, coronaryheart disease, stroke, etc.; thus, resulting in a double burden of malnutrition.

To address this dual burden of malnutrition, individuals needaccess to sufficient and good quality food; but focussing solely on food security is unlikely to solve the problem of global malnutrition. The challenges of malnutrition cannot be solvedjustbyincreasingfoodproductioninordertoimprove healthand nutritional status of the population. To resolve such challenges, awareness about food choices for optimal health plays a pivotal role among population.

Human nutrition is the science of understanding food; its component; intake; and how it is related to health, growth, development and diseases. Human nutrition involves the study of ingestion, digestion, absorption and assimilation of the nutrients; their metabolic functions, deficiency or excess disease as well as their regulation through several factors such as choosing particular food components/nutraceuticals or physical activity.

Abstract

Ethnobotany as an academic discipline surfaced in the 19^th century. Traditional medicine is used globally and is of rapidly growing economic importance. In developing countries, traditional medicine is often the only accessible and affordable treatment available. The chapter deals with importance of plants in the life of people, value of collecting the plant samples and adding knowledge to plants based on their economic potential and issues related to ethnopharmacology.

Keywords: Ethobotany, Ethnopharmacology, Drug discovery, Research ethics.

Population Growth
Around 1810, it took all of human history for the population to reach one billion. This quadrupled to 2 billion people in just 120 years (1930). Then, in 45 years, 4 billion (1975). From 4.4 billion in 1980 to 5.8 billion in 1997 and 7 billion now, the world’s population has increased. It is predicted that in less than 40 years, that number will double again to 11 billion. This indicates that more people than ever before are joining the group every day.
The United Nations Population Fund (UNPF) predicts that by 2025, there will be 10 billion people on Earth, and by the next century, there will be 14 billion.
Birth rates have decreased along with mortality rates, although death rates have decreased more quickly. In most affluent countries, there are approximately 1.6 births for every death, but in less developed countries, the ratio is closer to 3.3 births for every death. Every twelve years, a billion more people live on the planet.
Reasons Behind the Quick Population Growth
• A rise in the distribution and production of food.
• Gains in the field of public health
• medical technology, as well as improvements in education and living standards in many poor countries.

India is home of 16.7 % of the world population living in just 2.4 % of the worlds total land area. The decennial increase in population (1991-2001) has been 18.1 equivalents to the total population of Canada, France and Germany. The population in this century has 1.6 billion by 1960.

5.1 Population Growth

In 2000, the world had 6.1 billion human inhabitants. This figure may rise to more than 9 billion in the next 50 years. For the last 50 years, world population multiplied more rapidly than ever before, and more rapidly than it will ever grow in the future. Anthropologists believe the human species dates back at least 3 million years. For most of our history, these distant ancestors lived a precarious existence as hunters and gatherers. This way of life kept their total numbers small, probably less than 10 million. However, as agriculture was introduced, communities evolved that could support more people.

World population expanded to about 300 million by A.D. 1 and continued to grow at a moderate rate. But after the start of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, living standards rose and widespread famines and epidemics diminished in some regions. Population growth accelerated. The population climbed to about 760 million in 1750 and reached 1 billion around 1800.

In 1800, the vast majority of the world’s population (86 percent) resided in Asia and Europe, with 65 percent in Asia alone. By 1900, Europe’s share of world population had risen to 25 percent, fueled by the population increase that accompanied the Industrial Revolution. Some of this growth spilled over to the Americas, increasing their share of the world total. The 2000 growth rate of 1.4 percent, when applied to the world’s 6.1 billion population, yields an annual increase of about 85 million people. Because of the large and increasing population size, the number of people added to the global population will remain high for several decades, even as growth rates continue to decline.

Between 2000 and 2030, nearly 100 percent of this annual growth will occur in the less developed countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, whose population growth rates are much higher than those in more developed countries.

STUDIES ON HUMAN RELATIONS
Introduction

A human relation is frequently used as a general term to describe the ways in which managers’ interact with their employees. A number of things were happening in United States in the 1920s and 1930s, organizations were growing in size and in their dependence upon technology. Social groups were breaking down. The combination of all these factors with the growing dissatisfaction with paced, mechanized, highly standardized work led to changes in two major directions. Management science developed as a technical discipline, concerned with the establishment of efficiency models of managerial and organizational behaviour. The other perspective was initiated by the work of Human Relation scientists. They are discussed in detail here.

Abstract

Human resource management (HRM) has experienced a strong evolution. It is necessary to evaluate the design and implementation of personnel policies in order to provide useful information to managers. The objective of HR Audit is to analyze and evaluate the HR policies and their level of fit with the firm’s strategy and the characteristics of human capital. A periodic and systematic audit is very important in order to check the effectiveness and proper implementation of various HR policies in the organization. This chapter will represent various sections where the HR audit can be carried out, what should be the task of auditors, what are the steps/processes that needs to be followed at the time of audit, and various tools for HR Audit and preparation of Audit Report to be used for future references. At the end of this chapter a case study has been presented in order to make the study more effective.

10.1 Leading Self and Other

Leading up

In order to develop the ability to be a good Leader, people must learn to lead up with their leader, lead across with colleagues, and lead down with followers. Each of these skills draws on different principles. Leading up is the process of influencing a leader. The principles of leading up greatly increase the chance for success.

11.1 Time Management

One of the greatest assets business can have is an employee who uses his or her time to its fullest potential. Time is something that we can lose and never get back. People are always wishing they had more hours available in the day. The solution to this common problem is easier than one might realize. With a few minor adjustments in how to utilize time, people can change how to manage time. Proper time management can change life on a fundamental basis for the better.

Time management is not an instinct and instead, must be learned. . Using time wisely allows a person to complete tasks in an allotted time period, take on additional work, or spend more time with family. There are many things in an office environment that prevent effective time use.

Interruptions are time-wasters, especially since items one may consider urgent are not necessarily important. There is no way to pre plan the time and duration of an interruption, which may cause a loss of train-of-thought, difficulty concentrating, or complete memory lapse. Although it is difficult to avoid interruptions, there are methods for limiting their duration and impact the schedule.

Time is not like other resources which can be stored and used in the future, Time is a very special resource that you cannot be stored or saved for later use. Everyone has the exact same amount of time each day. Time not well used cannot be retrieved. Most people, feel like they have too much to do and not enough time. They blame lack of time for their poor finances, stress, bad relationships, and for not exercising their body.

Wise time management can help people find the time for what one desire, and for what they need to do. People need time to get what they want in life. If they wait for extra time to appear, they might lose the game of life. Through right time management, they can “create” the time they need, and not just wait for it to come. By planning time wisely, they will have more time to do more things.

Abstract

Ensuring the provision of safe and healthy working conditions to all workers and promoting the availability to them of certain minimum welfare amenities are the constitutional obligations of all employers as well as the Indian state. Enlightened employers tend to provide for these facilities on their own, as part of their performance and retention strategies. Others, however, largely consider these obligations as burden. Some recent researches reveal that the pursuit of numerical flexibility policies is becoming rampant amongst employers in the advanced world; they are doing so to cut costs and become more competitive. This means more use of labour-cost-saving devices and neglect of some basic rights of workers. Of course, intense competition amongst companies puts pressure on them to attempt cost-cutting and ignore these legal provisions. It should be noted however, that the law relating to working conditions is perhaps the most basic of labour laws in any country; therefore, its sanctity has to be maintained with an added responsibility by all concerned and as a societal value.

Introduction

In free India’s tryst with destiny, achieving survival and sustenance through agriculture, was not only an option but an imperative. This led to the remark of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru to say in 1947, “everything else can wait but not agriculture.” Green Revolution was indeed one of the major achievements of India in the post independence period. We no longer experience famines, where millions of people were starved to death in the pre independence period. But we still have over 200 million children, women and men who go to bed each night partially hungry. Access to clean drinking water and balanced diet remains a far cry despite substantial Govt expenditure in large number of programmes launched by the Centre and all the States. According to Niti Ayog, the country is far behind in reaching to the objectives of UN millennium development goal of reducing the incidence of hunger and maternal and foetal under- nutrition. 

Human wellness is the psychological well-being of human beings. The behavioral skills of human beings are concerned with human wellness. The main purpose is to make life more comfortable and to help people be happier, healthier, and effective. So, the concept of human wellness has acquired significance in the field of positive psychology in this current era when people are suffering from strains and stress.

Ever since more attention has been paid to the quality of life, the concept of human wellness has become more popular. However, less importance has been given to the conceptual development of the theory behind it, thus creating confusion between terms like psychological well-being, subjective wellness, quality of life, satisfaction, happiness, and mental health.

Quality of life and life satisfaction are measures of an individual’s perceived level of human wellness and happiness. It is sometimes used as a synonym for subjective or general well-being. Human wellness is related to the psychological well-being of an individual. The latter is concerned with the mental and emotional health of a man. Psychological well-being may be stated as the general feelings of enjoyment, happiness, contentment, job satisfaction, and one’s role in the workplace, a sense of achievement, belongingness, as well as the is no distress, dissatisfaction, or worry, etc.