eChapters

India is emerging as a major stakeholder in the global horticulture scenario accounting for 10.00 % of the world production of fruits. This has been made possible due to concerted efforts of scientists and progressive farming community. In recent years, there is considerable awareness about the nutritional security and food safety. Underutilized fruit trees not only provide nutrition and income security to the people but can also ameliorate the harsh environment of the semi-arid and arid region. Jamun has been named as diabetes fighter for its hypoglycemic (lowering blood sugar) properties.The minor fruits like bael, karonda, khirni, mahua, tamarind, mulberry, pilu, chironji, phalsa and wood apple have tremendous scope for their proper utilization. These fruits are nutritionally rich in bioactive compounds and some of these are of great medicinal value, processing quality and other uses. They have a growing demand in local as well as export market and for processing besides diversification in agriculture in the wake of global changes in weather conditions.

ABSTRACT

Commercially valuable plants are one of the main sources of economy. Growth, development and yield of these plants are severely affected by various environmental factors, which depend on dynamic fluctuations in different parameters. To counteract these responses, plants try to adapt evolutionarily but one form of adaptation is never going to suffice the simultaneous attack of multiple stresses. Crossing and plant breeding approaches came to practice, which is quite beneficial but requires lot of screening and is manpower consuming. In recent era new approaches have been developed combining recombinant DNA technology with tissue culture techniques to obtain improved varieties with specific desired traits. This method had an edge over other technologies but it still carries lot of complications. It is evident that genes do not act alone but act cooperatively and remain in continuous influence of other factors. So to target a particular gene for improved variety development requires a lot of detailed micro-details. In this communication, an attempt have been made to discuss mainly how transcription factors (TFs) have been targeted for this purpose. TFs in many occasions act as master regulators or central players of a particular pathway. This is attained by their ability to interact with multiple cis-elements present in the promoters of downstream stress or metabolism responsive genes. This behavior sometime leads to occurrence of some unwanted traits, which should be kept in mind to develop transgenics. Here, we focused mainly on important TF families such as ERF, WRKY, NAC and bHLH. We have been an attempt to analyzed how these TFs influence growth, yield and stress response of commercially valuable plants such as rice, wheat, tomato and cotton. This section will help to understand the genetic manipulation of plants can be targeted for improved variety development.

Abstract

Study was undertaken to investigate the toxicity of heavy metals on the structure and function of ectomycorrhizal fungi and their ability to colonize the pine seedlings. Ectomycorrhizal fungi were isolated, cultured and multiplied on MMN medium. Six heavy metals (Cd, Ni, Zn, Pb, Cu and Al) were selected and different concentrations viz; 0 ppm (control), 10 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm, 200 ppm and 500 ppm were used for treating the seedlings. The study was continued for one year. Different growth parameters were measured. Factors such as soil moisture, pH and soil organic carbon on ectomycorrhizal colonization were also analyzed. The mycorrhizal colonization was more in those seedlings having lower concentration of heavy metal treatment. Statistical data analysis has shown that the heavy metals had negative correlation with mycorrhizal colonization. High concentration of metals were toxic to external mycelium, which ultimately resulted in reduction of ectomycorrhizal development. The accumulation of metals in the fungal mycelium and protecting root against metal toxicity was an important factor.

Maize is a miracle crop and is popularly known as “Queen of Cereals” due to its very high yield potential. It’s a leading crop worldwide in terms of area, production and productivity and is suitable to diverse agro-climates. Its extent of adaptability is unmatched by any other crop. Due to this adaptability to diverse climates, maize had been grown by many generations in different parts of the world. Earlier, the primary utilisation of maize was focused towards human consumption and even today it is a staple food of many underprivileged societies especially in African countries and certain tribal pockets in India. It is playing an important role as a cheap source of carbohydrate in daily meals due to high productivity and wider adaptability. With the passage of time the productivity increased due to conscious selection towards high yield by farmers and researchers. This enhanced production and productivity opened new doors of utilisation of this wonderful crop. Maize found its place as a feed crop for economically important anima ls like chicken and swine. This shift towards feed industry got encouragement by change in the food habits of people. Looking at the recent consumption pattern of maize as a food crop displays declining trend. As per a NSSO survey (2014) maize consumption in rural areas in India has seen a decline of around 35% from 3.7 kg/year in 2004-05 to 2.4 kg per year in 2009-10, and further declined to 1.56 kg during the year 2011-12. Continued efforts towards yield enhancement and decline in human consumption made its way to utilise surplus maize in economically viable industrial products. Maize is a crop where every part of its plant can be utilised to produce food and non-food products. Oil, starch, glucose, dextrose and sorbitol are few important products produced by processing of maize grains. Apart from these, maize has been very widely used for production of ethanol which is used as a fuel in many developed countries. Direct utilisation of maize grains in poultry and other feed industries is on the rise with increasing demand of such foods. Maize oil is of high quality and is being widely used in developed countries. Maize is a major source of industrial starch which finds its way to diverse utilization such as food and beverage, pharmaceutical, textile, paper and other industries. Processing of maize is done by two ways- Dry Milling and Wet Milling. Wet milling produces starch, gluten and husk and Dry Milling produces corn meal, germ, grits and animal feed. Apart from these processed products, maize is also being developed to be utilised as a biopharmaceutical crop. Maize crop is being bioengineered to extract products of therapeutic and medicinal importance. Such a diverse utilisation of maize has generated a necessity to improve morpho-physiological traits which are important with respect to its industrial utilisation. In the present chapter, we will discuss various aspects of maize improvement for industrially important traits which will include oil, starch, methionine, biofuel and biopharmaceuticals.

Sustainable agricultural production is endangered by several ecological factors, including biotic & abiotic stresses. Biotic stress is the stress as a result of damage done to an organism by other living organisms. The agents of biotic stress are fungi, bacteria, virus, nematodes, insects, weeds & other plants which reduces quality and production of crops. These challenging environmental factors may have adverse effects on future agriculture production. Breeding resistant cultivars is considered as the best strategy to mitigate the effect of biotic stress. It is durable, economical & environment friendly and provide broad-spectrum resistance. Widely cultivated but susceptible genotypes can be improved by introgression of resistance genes from donor genotype into the background of recurrent genotype by different breeding strategies. In modern agriculture, conventional crop-breeding strategies alone are inadequate for achieving the increasing population’s food demand on a sustainable basis. The advancement of molecular genetics and related technologies are promising tools for the selection of new crop species with resistance genes. Transfer of several genes or quantitative trait loci (QTL) with potential characteristics into a single widely cultivated genotype is possible through the process of marker assisted selection (MAS). Gene pyramiding through MAS have accelerated the development of durable resistant/tolerant lines with high accuracy in the shortest period of time. With marker assisted backcross breeding (MABB), a major gene can be precisely targeted, the genome of the recurrent parent can be recovered fast, and linkage drag can be reduced. Genomic selection (GS) allows selection for multiple traits directly in the genome. These techniques help in identifying plants with two or more genes by employing gene-linked markers without the need for repeated testing in each generation during the development of pyramided lines and hence shorten the time of breeding program.

Introduction

The semiarid and arid ecosystem is not only neglected in India but also the whole world in respect of socio-economic and scientific development. Middlefon and Thomas, 1997) reported the arid and semi arid covers 47% of land surface of the plant and home town to 1/3 of human population. Conventional plant breeding so far only increased the yield of crops grown under arid tropics at about half the rate achieved for crops grown in temperate regions (Turner, 2004, b). The major crop of other ecosystem are considered as under exploited crop of arid ecosystem. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), is one such crop, which was domesticated in ancient Peru, has become the most popular and widely consumed vegetable in the world today, for its rich flavor and high nutritional value (Vitamins A and C)

Mostly goats are reared in extensive small holder systems in developing countries. Goat breeding programmes in these environments have been limited, amongst other factors, by the non availability of pedigree and performance records for traits of economic importance. Cross-breeding and selection play an important role in increasing production in the goats.The development of breeding strategy for the improvement of goats should be based on genetic parameter estimates of economically important traits. Biological, cultural, statistical, socio-economical and management aspects should also be an important component of the selection process.

Goats were domesticated for the triple purpose of milk, meat and hair. Although the development of milk and hair producing animals did not go together, the development of meat and hair together worked very well and there are several breeds like Angora which in addition to providing fiber, are excellent meat animals too. The development of meat breeds was favored by natural selection. The characters which aided to this aspect were high fertility rates and the relatively more active life which goats were forced to lead in order to get enough of nutrition in poor agricultural lands, deserts etc. where these animals were domesticated. These animals were exposed to the vagaries of the environment resulting in decline in production traits such as milk, meat etc. But meat production was not. Most of the breeds of Asia and Africa are thus predominant meat breeds which have been improved little by conscious effort of breeders. Some of them still have slow growth rate and feed conversion efficiency. The preference for goat meat had eroded the dairy potential of Indian goats, as the fastest growing males are slaughtered for meat purposes and only poor animals are retained for breeding purposes. Careful selection and utilisation of breeding males can alleviate this problem to a large measure and animals for both milk and meat production can be developed.There are several goat breeds that have good potential for meat production. Generally, there have been limited planned selection and breeding programs carried out by animal scientists to improve rate of growth and carcass composition of goats. As a result, many goat breeds deposit less intramuscular and subcutaneous fat. In the past, domesticated meat animals were selected for heavier mature weight and greater rate of gain. Selection for such parameters usually resulted in undesirable characteristics because some of the animals had not only gained weight faster and were heavier at maturity, but also had more subcutaneous and intramascular fat. Since consumers currently prefer leaner red meat, the livestock industry is making significant changes to satisfy these demands. Goat meat has unique attributes which will be beneficial to the present day consumer. Goat meat has 10% more lean carcass than cattle. At the same time the fat content is lower by 47% than beef. These qualities of the goat meat need to be emphasized so that the general public can become aware of this useful product.

There is a high demand for arable land to meet food demand and end malnutrition due to the growth of megacities and the global urban population. To enhance yield per unit area, conventional agricultural practises result in agricultural intensification and land clearing for crop cultivation. It has been established that these behaviours have a negative effect on the ecosystem, including soil and water contamination. It is crucial to take into account the application of vertical farming technology which makes use of both horizontal and vertical space and utilises nutrients, water and time (off-season production with artificial illumination) more efficiently to create a larger yield per unit volume of area than conventional outdoor farming. Since microgreens are rich in phytonutrients and are easily harvested, it is being thought of to grow them utilising cutting-edge vertical farming technology. Forest area being turned over to agriculture causes deforestation, the depletion of natural resources like groundwater, loss of biodiversity due to the destruction of habitats, increased soil erosion and greenhouse gas emissions.

1. INTRODUCTION

India is principally an agricultural country with seventy per cent of its population living in villages and fifty nine per cent of the total work force dependent on agriculture for its daily bread. Almost 20% of the gross GDP is contributed by agriculture. A steep surge in production since late 1960s has made country self-reliant in food grain production with buffer stocks full to the brim. Since independence, 0.66% growth/ year in gross agricultural area combined with 2.67%/year increases in food grain production led to a net increase in per capita food grain availability from 395 g/ day to 475 g/ day. An outstanding achievement, as it happened despite an unabated population build up at a rate of 2.15 %/ year or 13 million more mouths to be fed every year. Not only in food grain production, the country has made revolutionary progress in milk, fish, eggs, fruits and vegetable production also (NAAS, 2004).

Needless to say that the economic growth of our country depends largely on the prosperity of the agriculture. The agricultural sector acts as a bulwark in maintaining food security as well as national security. The first and the foremost role of agricultural is its promotion of economic progress in the country by enlarging the savings of the rural sector and making them available for the development of industries. Gandhiji, the father of the nation called “Agriculture as the soul of India”. Also, agriculture has been termed as “The mother of all industries and the maintainer of human life standing at the need of all sciences and arts, indeed, at the head of civilization and progress”. The significance of agriculture in India arises also from the fact that the development in agriculture is an essential condition for the development of the national economy. Thus any change in the agriculture sector- positive or negative- has a multiplier effect on the entire economy (Rekha & Rangappa, 2010).

Over 70 years ago, Mahatma Gandhi made the following observations while addressing youth who wanted to serve rural India:

‘The fact is that the villagers have lost all hope. They suspect that every stranger’s hand is at their throats and that he goes to them only to exploit them. The divorce between intellect and labour has paralyzed our agriculture. The worker should enter a village full of love and hope, feeling sure that where men and women labour unintelligently and remain unemployed half the year around, he working all the year round and combining labour with intelligence cannot fail to win the confidence of the villagers’.

This message is as relevant today as it was 60 years ago. Integrating brain and brawn in farm enterprises should hence be the purpose of agricultural education. (ICAR, 1997)

Abstract

Ongoing rise in human population and affluence, and socioeconomic imperatives continue to demand more efficient and productive use of global finite resources. This is particularly true with water which society has to share between its domestic, industrial, agricultural, environmental and recreational purposes. With greater concern for nature and environment, and the socioeconomic development more water must be allocated to non-agricultural uses. Increasing crop water productivity (WP) is a key response option conserves water, energy and soil while satisfying society’s increasing demand for crops for agricultural products. Improvements to crop WP help to meet rising demands for food from a growing, wealthier, and increasingly urbanized population, when at the same time there are pressures to reallocate water from agriculture to cities and to make more water available for environmental uses contribute to the urgency for achieving gains in agricultural water management. The papers in addition to the rationale and basic concept of crop WP, explore the techniques for crop WP increases.

Abstract

India has got a pool of medicinal herbs which are proved to be beneficial in curing various diseases. Their regular consumption not only will improve the health status but also reduce risk of lifestyle diseases. Though simple solutions, associated colloids, suspensions and emulsions are some of the traditional techniques for encapsulating functional agents, micro-encapsulation techniques is the most successfully employed technique for the controlled release of sensitive bioactive compounds. Owing to the targeted delivery of functional components directly to the human gut system, emulsion based delivery system are getting more attention now-a-days. With advancement in science, more complex and novel structures can be created which can successfully deliver these nutraceutical and bioactive ingredients into existing food systems. The technological interventions in emulsion science have opened great opportunities to improve the delivery of bioactive herbal components into milk and milk products. Various milk and milk products functionality can be improved in this way which will improve the gut- microflora within short period of time after consumption.

Increased importance of research publications, impact factor and citations as metrics in evaluating science and assessing the quality of research is driving unethical practices too in research and publications. Adding to that, limited access to research publications, exuberant subscription charges, heavy article processing charges and several other transboundary science and technology issues are further dividing the scientific community which is severely impacting the progress of the Nation (Pathak, 2025). The National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS) journal rating system serves as a cornerstone for researchers in India, particularly in the domain of agricultural sciences. Its significance lies in providing an accessible and systematic framework for evaluating the quality and relevance of academic journals. This chapter explores avenues for enhancing the NAAS journal rating methodologies to ensure greater accuracy, inclusivity, and ethical rigor in the assessment process. By integrating global best practices, incorporating diverse metrics, and addressing emerging challenges in the academic publishing landscape, the proposed framework aims to make NAAS ratings more robust and globally competitive. To enable universal access to scholarly scientific literature, under Aatmanirbhar Bharat it would be appropriate to strengthen our own Indian Journals to compete globally in the long run. In this regard, NAAS rating of Agri-journals has been a progressive step and NAAS should continue to upgrade its evaluation mechanism. The Professional Association of Agricultural Societies (PAAS) and NAAS partnership in upgrading of publications in Indian society journals should be encouraged.

Introduction

Phosphorus (P) is a major nutrient in crop production, but is also a major constraint due to its low bioavailability in soils. It is 11th most abundant element on earth’s crust and a  vital component of DNA, RNA, ATP and photosynthetic system and catalyses a number of biochemical reactions from the beginning of seedling growth through to the formation of grain and maturity. Many factors influence soil P availability like type of parent material from which the soil is derived, degree of weathering and climatic conditions.

Introduction

Water retention is an important soil hydraulic property that affects how soil operates in an ecosystem and how it is managed. Hydrology, agronomy, meteorology, ecology, environmental protection, and many other soil-related professions employ soil water retention data. Some soil survey programs measure water retention. A soil survey can estimate water retention from other soil properties. However, these measurements are problematic during project design and in large-scale implementations (Rawls et al., 1991; Wo sten et al., 2001) since agricultural land needs rise periodically. Agriculture is using dry land. Food self-sufficiency and becoming a world food barn by 2045 necessitate agricultural land expansion (Mulyani and Agus, 2017). Water concerns afflict farming in this agroecosystem (Syam et al., 1996; Mulyani and Agus, 2017). Because of soil composition, much water stays in the earth. Tang et al. (2022).

For plant growth, soil water retention variables indicate how well the soil holds water. The dirt provides most of the plant’s water. Water in root layer dirt pores is absorbed by plants. Thus, soil water retention is the key factor affecting plant development and productivity. Plants can take in the soil pores’ water between the field capacity and the point where they always wilt. Field capacity occurs when the matrix potential and gravitational potential match. The most significant component for plant growth is soil water (Tang et al., 2022, Deng et al., 2016, Su et al., 2020). The soil’s physical features determine plant water availability. The amount of water available depends on clay minerals, organic matter, absorbed cations, soil texture and structure, and water availability. Thus, to prevent plants from experiencing water or groundwater stress, soil physical attributes must be investigated to determine groundwater availability (Kirkham 2023). Infiltration is crucial to groundwater availability. The amount of water that can penetrate the soil depends on its physical features, such as soil texture, organic matter, bulk density, porosity, aggregate stability/stability, and water content. Thus, soil water availability depends on its physical qualities, particularly its ability to absorb and transfer water. The physical properties of saturated soil affect how water travels through it, which affects runoff and infiltration (Sauer and Logsdon 2002).

Introduction

The Indian Thar Desert is a marginal zone for agricultural production. Scanty and un-even rain, extremes of high (March–October) and low (December–January) temperature condition for the prolong duration and in-together these factors creates an associated abiotic stressed environment that limiting choice of crops, quality of produce, productivity and production under hot arid agro-climate. Out of 9–12 mean rainy days/annum in the hot arid region of northwestern parts of Rajasthan, much of the rain often comes in only a few (1–3) heavy rainfall events during the monsoon season (June–September), which can be erratic and unpredictable. In kharif season, higher day temperature range (35–42°C) and prolonged drought periods in combination with sandy soil creates an environment where few crops can survive under rainfed situations. Here, the native crop-plants both annual and perennial can play an equally vital role for food and fodder especially when the livestock population is an important element of farming system. Further, horticultural exploitation with native crop-plant species in general is found to be potential and stable in the arid and semiarid areas which receive about 150–650 mm of rains.

Introduction

India is primarily an agriculture-based country, with the livestock sector being a vital component of its agricultural landscape. The meat sector plays a crucial role in providing livelihoods and jobs to rural and village populations. Slaughtering food animals not only yields meat but also generates valuable byproducts that can significantly benefit society. Typically, only one-third of an animal’s weight is meat; the remaining two-thirds consist of byproducts and waste, which must be effectively processed and utilized. Efficient utilization of these byproducts directly impacts both the economy and environmental pollution. The yield of animal byproducts can range from 50% to 60% of an animal’s live weight. According to statistics from the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (DAHD, 2019), India saw the slaughter of 11.92 million buffalo, 3.05 million cattle, 50.86 million sheep, 97.19 million goats, 10.73 million pigs, and over 2.81 million poultry birds in 2018-19, resulting in the production of 8.11 million tonnes of meat.

An overwhelming proportion of plant material used for compounding herbal medicines and nutraceuticals is currently collected from the wild. With traditional health care systems gaining increasing popularity, the enormous amount of plant material extracted from the limited plant populations available in natural stands is a cause of justifiable alarm. The unscrupulous plunder of plant populations growing in the wild is pushing increasing number of important species to the endangered category and many to the verge of extinction. Also, unethical practices like adulteration and storage of medicinal plants under unacceptable conditions are rampant. All this is happening, when the consumer is becoming increasingly quality conscious and is demanding traceability of source material used for formulations and adherence to good practices for the entire chain of manufacturing process for herbal drugs and plant-based nutraceuticals. Clearly, solution to this problem lies in replacing the ‘collection from the wild ’ paradigm to ‘production by cultivation ’. An essential prerequisite for meeting this objective is a well thought out research agenda which not only tackles productivity enhancement goals for the targeted plant species but also addresses the validity of the entrenched notion among healers who use the traditional medical systems, that only material collected from the wild produces the desired results. The reason advanced in support of this argument is that phytomedicines are derived from plant populations growing in the wild under organic conditions and under their natural rhizosphere and rhizoplane. The associated soil-microbial complexes, and a variety of endophytic microorganisms, may be the initiators or modifiers of the production and expression of medicinal properties.

It also so happens that a majority of medicinal plants are shade loving, C4 types and will necessarily require their species-specific ambient environment for elicitation of the medicinally relevant moities.

An overwhelming proportion of plant material used for compounding herbal medicines and nutraceuticals is currently collected from the wild. With traditional health care systems gaining increasing popularity, the enormous amount of plant material extracted from the limited plant populations available in natural stands is a cause of justifiable alarm. The unscrupulous plunder of plant populations growing in the wild is pushing increasing number of important species to the endangered category and many to the verge of extinction. Also, unethical practices like adulteration and storage of medicinal plants under unacceptable conditions are rampant. All this is happening, when the consumer is becoming increasingly quality conscious and is demanding traceability of source material used for formulations and adherence to good practices for the entire chain of manufacturing process for herbal drugs and plant-based nutraceuticals. Clearly, solution to this problem lies in replacing the ‘collection from the wild’ paradigm to ‘production by cultivation’. An essential prerequisite for meeting this objective is a well thought out research agenda which not only tackles productivity enhancement goals for the targeted plant species but also addresses the validity of the entrenched notion among healers who use the traditional medical systems, that only material collected from the wild produces the desired results. The reason advanced in support of this argument is that phytomedicines are derived from plant populations growing in the wild under organic conditions and under their natural rhizosphere and rhizoplane. The associated soil-microbial complexes, and a variety of endophytic microorganisms, may be the initiators or modifiers of the production and expression of medicinal properties.

Citizens’ Perceptions And City Revival : An Approach To Regeneration

Regeneration Strategies To Be Case Specific And Based On Citizens Perception

It is important to realise the driving force of the inherent potential of a city. In case of Allahabad, the Master Plan guidance was framed since 1950 but it is surprising that the role of the city as a cultural and educational node has not been sufficiently recognized and reflected in the Plan document. We still witness the development of the city like any other city of the state where special areas or historic precincts are surrounded by non-descript structures. It was essential to reach out to the citizens of Allahabad and to know their views on the growth and decline. The perception of citizens would give an idea about their belief regarding the degree of amendments needed in regenerating the city.

To draw regeneration strategies for a city it is important to understand the city, therefore physical as well as social transformations, major events in history should be observed and analyzed. The strength of a regeneration technique lies in discovering the potential thrust areas for the city.

In order to have a better understanding of the urban setting of an Indian historic city, the ancient city of Allahabad is discussed. The history and development of this ancient city has been studied in a chronological fashion. This part of the book focuses on the period:

From antiquity to the revolt of 1857, city’s inherent potential as a popular pilgrim center, and also the phenomenon of Kumbh. Further exploring the sacredness of Allahabad. Why Allahabad is regarded as a Tirthraj? And what sacred elements constitute the ‘Prayag’ of olden times? Apart from Sangam, confluence of Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati, the city is also known for Temples, namely, the Bharadwaj Ashram, Nag Basuki, Mankameshwar.