eChapters

Introduction

Indian major carps viz. Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala are the fast growing, consumer preferred and the stay component species in Indian pond aquaculture system. These carps breed spontaneously in natural water viz. river and bundh type tanks where fluviatile condition prevails (Hora, 1945; David 1959; Quasim and Qayyam, 1962; Natarajan, 1971). Above three species under culture condition attain sexual maturity but do not spawn in confined water (Chaudhuri, 1960; Chaudhuri and Singh, 1984). Khan and Jhingran (1975) in their review described several factors viz. temperature, run off water, photoperiod, turbidity and water depth that are playing important roles in initiating natural spawning in ‘bundhs’ and rivers. They further described that no single factor can be considered responsible for spawning separately. The act spawning involves a chain of interrelated conditions as prerequisite to spawn. Monsoon, flood forms the spawning ground and initiates natural spawning. Although fish bred in its natural environment, it was difficult to understand why some species do not breed in confined water where as other species in the same environment breed somoto.

The initial attempt to induce breed IMC (mrigal) was made during 1937. Khan (1938) was able to induce ovulation in Cirrhinus mrigala by administration of mammalian pituitary extract but eggs were not fertilized. No remarkable success on induced breeding of Indian major carps was made till 1957. Indian major carps were induced to breed for the first time on 10th July, 1957 by the injection of aqueous carp pituitary extract at Govt. Fish Farm, Angul of Orissa state by the scientific team from pond culture substation, Cuttack (Chaudhuri and Alikunhi 1957). Eversince 1957, the induced breeding of carps have been tried by many permutation and combination, addition and alteration of inducing agents.

Induced breeding in freshwater fishes is a technique used to stimulate ripe fish to breed in captivity, typically by injecting them with pituitary hormones or synthetic hormone extracts. This method is crucial for aquaculture as many farmed fish species don’t naturally breed in captivity. Induced breeding is a technique by which the economically important fishes (which generally do not breed in captive condition) are breed through artificial stimulation. Induced breeding is a technique whereby ripe fish breeders are stimulated by pituitary hormone or any other synthetic hormone introduction to breed in captive condition. It is also known as hypophysation.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF INDUCED BREEDING
Induced breeding has revolutionized aquaculture by allowing fish to reproduce under controlled conditions, overcoming their dependence on natural environmental cues for spawning. The technique’s development has seen major contributions from various countries, leading to its global application in fish farming.
• 1930 – Argentina (Houssay): The journey began in Argentina with Houssay’s pioneering use of pituitary extract to induce premature birth in livebearing fish. This milestone introduced the possibility of manipulating fish reproduction artificially.
• 1934 – Brazil: Brazilian scientists built upon this innovation by successfully applying pituitary extract for induced breeding, confirming its broader applicability beyond Argentina.
• Expansion to America and Russia: Researchers such as Merlin and Hubs in the U.S. and Gerebilisky in Russia quickly adopted and refined the technique, promoting its international recognition in aquaculture research.
• 1937 – India (Khan): Khan achieved India’s first success with induced breeding in Cirrhinus mrigala. This event marked the beginning of induced breeding in Indian aquaculture practices.

Ketamine and Propofol - “Ketofol”
“Ketofol’’ is a 1:1 (w:w) combination of ketamine and propofol (Taboada and Leece, 2014; Thejasree et al., 2018). The advantages of using both ketamine and propofol in combination (Ketofol) include analgesia, rapid recovery, preservation of airways and maintenance of spontaneous respiration and haemodynamic stability (Saeed, 2011). The admixture has benefits of both drugs, while reducing the side effects of the individual drugs when administered alone (Amornyotin, 2014; Lee and Lee, 2016; Mirfazaelian et al., 2016). Propofol-induced respiratory depression is less with the admixture, while analgesia and cardiorespiratory functions are good due to ketamine (Amornyotin, 2014; Mirfazaelian et al., 2016). Since the adverse effects are dose dependent, the combination helps reduce the dose of the individual drug needed to cause the desired anaesthetic effects. This combination of ketamine and propofol can be used to induce anaesthesia following sedation with any of the previously mentioned balanced sedative cocktails. Induction should be “titrated to effect” based on the depth of sedation achieved from the administration of the balanced sedative cocktails.
Thiopentone and Propofol - “Thio-propofol”
Thio-propofol is a 1:1 vol:vol mixture of 2.5% thiopentone and 1% propofol (Ko et al., 1999; Evans et al., 2002; Larisa et al., 2008). Since the mechanisms of action of propofol and thiopentone are similar, the mixture provides an additive hypnotic interaction (Vinik et al., 1999) and behaves in-between to that of the

ABSTRACT

Holostemma ada-kodien K. Schum, is a laticiferous climber belonging to the family Asclepiadaceae. The root tubers of the plant are medicinally important and are utilized as a major ingredient of the drug, Jivanti. The roots of Holostemma are sweet, ophthalmic, emmolient, alterant, tonic stimulant, aphrodisiac, expectorant and galactagogue and are useful in ophthalmopathy, orchitis, cough, burning sensation, stomachalgia, fever and to cure ‘tridosha’ (Warrier et al., 1995). The sugars and amino acids present in the tuberous roots are responsible for the medicinal properties (Ramiah et al., 1981). There is a huge demand for the root tubers of Holostemma in the South Indian pharmacies and more than 150 metric tons of roots are needed every year (Nair et al., 1992). The destructive and ruthless collection of tuberous roots in recent times has led to acute scarcity of the plant and consequently it has been listed as vulnerable and rare in the FRLHT red list of medicinal plants (FRLHT, 1997). Extending the commercial cultivation of Holostemma is practically impossible due to the increasing land pressure and the perennial nature of the crop. An alternative to meet the increasing demand is to produce the active chemicals in Holostemma through in vitro techniques. In vitro techniques have been extensively studied to produce the different secondary metabolites from various medicinal plants. A strong correlation between secondary metabolite production and morphological differentiation gives more impetus to the application of organized cell culture particularly the root cultures for the large-scale production of phytochemicals in vitro. Transformed root cultures - the so called hairy root cultures obtained after the insertion of T-DNA from the root inducing (Ri) plasmid of the Agrobacterium rhizogenes into the plant genome (Ackermann, 1977) has emerged as an important tool for the production of secondary metabolites in vitro (Rhodes et al., 1987). Hairy roots have advantages of fast growth, organ differentiation and stable secondary metabolite production (Banerjee et al., 1995). We report here the hairy root induction from shoot buds and seedling hypocotyls in infection with A. rhizogenes useful in exploring the possibilities of large-scale in vitro secondary metabolite production in this rare medicinal plant.

ABSTRACT

Trichoderma spp. are important group of fungi which are mycoparasitic on several plant pathogenic fungi. Trichoderma spp. are, therefore, used as commercial biofungicides. Genetic manipulation through induced mutagenesis and molecular cloning are two important tools in improving the biocontrol potential of Trichoderma spp. In the present study, attempts were made to induce genetic variability in Trichoderma virens using UV- induced mutagenesis. In the process, a simple protocol was developed for obtaining high frequency mutations in Trichoderma virens. Using a UV-crosslinker, four stable mutants of T. virens have been developed, which are distinctly different from the wild type in appearance and in antagonism against Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotium rolfsii. One of the mutants, designated as TI is very slow in growth, but sporulates densely, and retained its mycoparasitic potential against R. solani. Though all the mutants were able to antagonize R. solani, all of them were overgrown by the test pathogen S. rolfsii. These mutants could be used to identify genes involved in growth and conidiation in T. virens.

Resistance to diseases in plants may be enhanced by incorporating resistance genes in susceptible cultivars and this disease management strategy is considered to be the most desirable one. But unavailability of reliable sources of resistance and the requirement of long periods for development of cultivars with built-in resistance have limited the usefulness of this approach. Employing genetic engineering techniques for obtaining resistant cultivars appears to hold promise. However, in the light of expression of concern for the long term effects of genetically modified crops and plant products in several countries, the feasibility of exploiting the genetic engineering methods remains a question mark. In this context, the possibility of inducing natural disease resistance (NDR) mechanisms operating in existing cultivars with high yield potential to provide protection to crops and harvested produce against diseases, has attracted the attention of researchers in several countries. This approach does not involve the introduction of any foreign gene into the plant, but it regulates the expression of defense genes in the susceptible plants. Furthermore this approach is as safe as the use of genetically resistant cultivars for the preservation of environment, since the same mechanisms of resistance are activated in plants with either genetic resistance or induced resistance. Intensive research is being carried out to select effective agents that can be used as inducers of resistance in crop plants to contain various diseases, as alternatives to the development of resistant cultivars through conventional breeding and genetic engineering methods

ABSTRACT

Fruit rot and die back caused by Colletotrichum capsici is the destructive disease in chillies. The potential of Pseudomonas fluorescens for the management of fruit rot of chillies was evaluated under greenhouse and field conditions. Among the various strains of P. fluorescens tested in vitro, the strain Pf1 significantly inhibtied the mycelial growth of C. capsici. Combined application of talc-based powder formulation of P. fluorescens to seed (10 g/kg seed) and foliage (1 kg/ha) effectively controlled the fruit rot disease. Early and high induction of various defense compounds were observed due to P. fluorescens treatment.

ABSTRACT

Vanilla planifolia Andrews - the high value, exotic spice crop has recently gained wide acceptance in the southern and northeastern states of the country. Being an orchid, germination of naked embryo is limited and this favours genetic uniformity. An attempt was made to induce genetic variability in Vanilla through biotechnology tools for its exploitation in crop improvement programmes. In vitro embryo culture and mutagenesis were applied for the purpose. Plantlets were multiplied, hardened, planted out and evaluated for morphological, biochemical and molecular markers. Great interclonal variability was observed in the in vitro derived plantlets. The intraclonal variability was very low in tissue culture derived regenerants. Isozyme and RAPD assay confirmed genotypic variation. Six superior clones were identified and distributed to farmers for further evaluation.

Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) uses an inductively coupled plasma to produce excited atoms and ions that emit electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths characteristic of a particular element. A plasma is a neutral gas containing a good number of positive and negative ions or free electrons. A plasma can only be created. A combustion flame is one example of a plasma. Advantages of ICP-AES are excellent limit of detection and linear dynamic range, multi-element capability, low chemical interference and a stable and reproducible signal. Disadvantages are spectral interferences (many emission lines), high cost and operating expense and the fact that samples typically must be in solution.

A new analytical technique called inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy has been used for simultaneous multi element analysis of biological materials and soils (Hou and Jones 2000; Wikipedia, 2010; Bradford and Cook, 1997). This technique offers advantages over AAS and other multi-element methods because matrix problems are eliminated or minimized through use of the high temperature argon plasma. Apart from multi- element capability at all concentration levels, plasmas are noted for relative freedom from chemical and ionization interferences that are common with AAS, and detection limits are equal to or better than AAS, depending on the element to be analyzed. Elements such as Al, P, S and B, which are either poorly measured at low concentrations or not possible by AAS, are readily determined with higher sensitivity by ICP.

Intellectual Property (IP) refers to intangible assets that are created through human creativity and innovation. These assets can be legally protected and provide exclusive rights to the creators and owners for a certain period of time.

Importance of IP for Innovators and Entrepreneurs

a) Protecting intellectual property (IP) is essential for fostering innovation and creativity, as it encourages inventors, creators, and entrepreneurs to invest their time, energy, and resources into developing new products, services, and technologies without fear of having their ideas stolen or copied.

For Example, if a software company develops a new program that can revolutionize how people interact with technology, it’s essential to protect the IP of the product by patenting and copyright. This protection ensures that no other company can steal the idea or copy the software, providing an incentive for the software company to invest in the product’s development.

Similarly, if a fashion designer creates a unique design for a dress, they can protect their IP by trademarking the design. This protection provides incentivizes the designer to invest their time and resources into developing new designs, knowing that their creations will be legally protected from copycats.

b) Having intellectual property (IP) protection grants a competitive advantage in the marketplace as it enables creators and owners to have exclusive rights to use, sell, and license their creations without the fear of infringement by others.

Industrial Microbiology is the discipline that uses micro organisms, usually grown on large scale, to produce commercial products or carry out important chemical transformations.

The products derived from such processes are

1 Alcohols and alcoholic beverages.
2 Production of pharmaceutical agents like antibiotics, vaccines etc.
3 Food additives
4 Enzymes
5 Chemicals
6 Single cell proteins

Industrial ice cream manufacturing is an integrated system involving food science, dairy technology, mechanical processing, refrigeration, quality assurance, hygiene, packaging, maintenance, utilities, manpower, and cold-chain management. This chapter explains how each manufacturing stage influences the next, from raw-material receiving and mix preparation through pasteurization, homogenization, aging, freezing, filling, hardening, storage, and distribution. It emphasizes process discipline, equipment reliability, trained personnel, KPI-based management, preventive maintenance, and cold-chain integrity. The chapter also addresses quality control, food safety, sustainability, digitalization, and operational challenges. It provides practical guidance for factory managers seeking consistent quality, productivity, controlled costs, reduced losses, and long-term operational excellence

In general, an unwell entity is one that fails to regularly create a surplus and frequently relies on outside funds to exist. The Sick Industrial Enterprises (Special Provision) Act 1985 characterized sickness as “a financial loss over two successive accounting periods and a total loss that is equal to or exceeds the net assets of the enterprise at the conclusion of the second accounting period”.

Revised Definition of Sick Smallscale Industry “A small scale industrial unit is deemed sick if it has incurred losses at the conclusion of the accounting year that are equal to or exceed 50% of the highest level of its net assets in the immediately preceding five f inancial years”.

Symptoms of Sickness

The continuation of many signals for a long time is called a symptom of a disease, and the various symptoms are ultimately reflected in the operation of the facility (capacity utilization rate, financial capital ratio, stock market value practice in various financial areas, production, marketing and labor relations in the industry).

Among the key signs are

• Deterioration of financial relations

• Review delay

• Lack of constant cash flow

• Continued decline in stock prices

• late payment obligations

Considered as one of the leading members of the family Bromeliaceae, pineapple is one of the most extensively consumed fruits in the world. Fruit juices, extracts, concentrates and processed edibles are consumed worldwide. Besides, plant fibres, enzymes obtained from the stems and leaves find many applications across industries. Pineapple residue mainly consists of pulp, stem, leaves and peels and the huge wastes produced as a result of improper handling, harsh environmental conditions, decaying and deterioration. Thesecan be successfully processed and extracted for further inexpensive and sustainable utilization instead of discarding. Agro-based and chemical industries have been switching to using plant-based substrates from various resources. Above all, all the natural substrates obtained are highly renewable, won’t contribute to the global waste production, require less expenditures in processing, less toxic and has considerably better biochemical properties than the synthetic alternatives.

Industrial Importance of Pineapple

Pineapple Leaf Fibre (PALF)

Back in the days, pineapple leaf fibre was considered to be an agricultural residue until it’s potential capabilities as an organic fibre and its commercial prominence heaved into view as a consequence of pioneering researches (Uddin et al.2017). According to Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI) standards, many chemical constituents like holocellulose, α-cellulose, lignin, and ash content of PALF were analyzed from a different source of f ibres, with varying environmental conditions, cost, etc. (TAPPI,1991). Mainly because of its highest tensile strength (413 to 1627 MNm−2), high cellulose content, as compared to other organic fibres with its Young’s modulus varying from 34.5 to 82.51 GNm−2. Furthermore, it has also been ascertained that upon its conversion to yarn, a 13% rise in its strength is observed and a bundle of saturated PALF adheres a reduced strength by 50% (Asim et al., 2015). Various researches and aided projects of SITRA (South India Textile Research) under UNDP/UNIDO have demonstrated the production of 100% PALF yarn by blending with other synthetic or natural fibres like cotton or silk. The threads, thus produced, are used to make fabrics, fancy carpets, mops, curtains, etc. where pineapple-jute blended yarns are used by the textile and fabric industries (Mishra et al., 2004; Debnath, 2016). It is also used in furnishings, decorations, sports items, baggage, quilts due to its aesthetic and elegant fabric (Anon, 1992).

Industrial microbiology is an important area of applied microbiology. In a broader sense, industrial microbiology is concerned with all aspects of business that relate to microbiology. It refers to the use of microorganisms in commercial enterprise. Cheap raw materials are converted to valuable products through the metabolism of microbes. Microbes for this purpose could be exploited in different ways.

Various commercial products of economic value made by microbes are :

8.1 Introduction

Contamination of drinking water supplies from industrial waste is a result of various types of industrial processes and disposal practices. Industries that use large amounts of fresh water for processing have the potential to pollute waterways through the discharge of their waste into streams and rivers, or by run-off and seepage of stored wastes into nearby water sources. Other disposal practices, which cause water contamination, include deep well injection and improper disposal of wastes in surface impoundments.

Industrial wastes consists of both organic and inorganic substances. Organic wastes include pesticide residues, solvents and cleaning fluids, dissolved residues from fruits and vegetables, and lignin from pulp and paper to name a few. Effluents can also contain inorganic wastes such as brine salts and metals. This is an incentive for industry to pre-treat their water by neutralizing the chemically active components, recycling, dilution or extraction and collection for proper disposal.

The waste disposal practices, which presently pose a threat to drinking water supplies, include deep well injection of wastes and wastes that are dumped and retained in surface impoundments or evaporation ponds. (Ministry of Industries, 1994).

In keeping with the functions delegated to the Central Pollution Control Board under the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, they covered a number of industries, their production and location with details of receiving water besides details on the raw material they used, the process they adopted to process them, inplant control systems, pollution control system provided and the future requirement with cost implications, monitoring system etc.

These documents are also aimed at developing standards for effluents and emissions as Minimal National Standards that can be adopted uniformly throughout the country. The State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) can tighten the standards, wherever the local situation demands.

While implementing these standards, the status of technologies adopted by the industries and further requirements to meet the overall objective of pollution control have been assessed. The technology requirement for pollution control industry wise has been presented in the following groups of industry categories.

Introduction

Digitalization is transforming the digital economy, offering opportunities for entrepreneurs and businesses, and transforming production and trade. The rapid advancement of technology and information systems has led to significant changes in both individuals and companies, particularly in the realm of digitalization in commerce (BarNir et al., 2003). Digitalization uses digital technologies to revolutionize business models, simplify transactions, and enhance value-producing opportunities in processes like customer service, shipping, buying, and selling (Zhang et al., 2013). All over the world, businesses are transitioning from manual to e-commerce for benefits such as efficiency, productivity, security, competitiveness, cost reduction, marketing, promotion, and information distribution (Daniel & Wilson, 2002; Gefen, 2000). E-commerce, a key feature, is reshaping global production and trade (Koh et al., 2017; Scalco, 2017). Moreover, the e-commerce industry has seen a substantial transition over the last few decades, due to rapid technical improvements and shifting customer behaviors.