eChapters

1.1. Agriculture

Derived from Latin word; Ager-soil and culture-Cultivation.

An art: Governs the knowledge to perform the operations of the farm in a skillful ways.

A science: Uses technologies including breeding, production technologies, crop protection, economics etc., to maximize the yield and profitability of the farmer.

A business: Way of life for a rural population.

Involves management of labour, water and capital, and employing technologies for production of food, fibre, feed and fuel through mechanization to achieve maximum returns.

As per Agricultural act 1947, agriculture includes horticulture, fruit growing, seed growing, dairy farming, livestock breeding, grazing land, meadow land, market gardens and nursery gardens.

Introduction

International agricultural setup has appeared as it now taking all out consideration and agricultural heritage, crop voyage, crop classification and its significances. International cooperation has contended a big role in developing and strengthening the research system in Asian country. several developed countries like USA, UK, USSR, Canada, Australia, Japan, many European countries; Charitable establishments, etc.; altruist and Ford Foundations; varied International Agencies like FAO, UNDP, UNESCO, World Bank, etc.; and also the International Agricultural Research Centres below the consultatory cluster on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) System have contributed extensively to the explanation for agricultural RESEARCH in Asian country. Spectacular achievements in increasing the food production have raised the country’s image significantly, and also the bilateral arrangements have modified from the erstwhile donor-donee standing to relationship of equal partnership in research. The reciprocity and mutuality of interests with the less developed and in addition because the technologically advanced countries square measure the essence of international co-operation. The government has approved ICAR, motor-assisted by the board of directors of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), to enter into bilateral cooperative agreements with many countries and agencies. The mode of collaboration ordinarily follows the pattern of: (a) exchange of germ-plasm of plant and animal origin; (b) exchange of scientific and technical information; (c) visits of scientists and experts; (d) coaching of scientists; and (e) infrastructure development.

Introduction

Today, concerns regarding environmental safety and sustainability of land productivity are increasing amongst the scientists, administrators and environmentalists. It is doubted whether the strategy adopted during the so-called green revolution era could be continued any longer under the challenging conditions of this new century. Already, a section of people in the world is questioning the propriety of conventional agriculture, and a few of them are advocating alternative practices that are perceived to lay foundation for sustained production. On these lines, systems like alternative agriculture, natural farming and organic farming were proposed at various conventions. However, the scientists harping on the success of green revolution continue to doubt whether such a system can really be functional, productive and meet the growing demands for agricultural products in this e-age. These emphasize the need to develop new strategy of living with the nature and nurturing it for sustainable production

Speculation on Indian agriculture

The spectacular observations made in the Economic Survey of 2015-16 that “Indian agriculture, is in a way, a victim of its own accomplished success and in abnormality the green revolution”, shows the absoluteness of the agricultural planning at present and the calamity that has been wreaked by the green revolution. The green revolution, which is generally characterized by the addition of high-yielding varieties of seeds and fertilizers uses, assuredly added the higher quantity of crop coverage considerably. There has been acceptance of destroying ecological balance furnishings in the composition in felling down water table, discharge of greenhouse gases, and the contamination of ground water. Needless to say, the agricultural area is in an accompaniment of distress, which is acutely affecting peasants and bordering farmers, and burning action interventions are adapted to assure their interests. The government has responded to constitute basic panel, which will acclaim organization to increase the assets of farmers by 2022. This might be a frankly insistent target, if not wish to make addition of stagnated agronomical advance in open face to be made. However, there are flourishing hurdles that to be accepted if to wish accomplishment of this objective.

Introduction

Indian agriculture has come a long way since the inception of planning in1951. All along there was an almost obsessive concern of development policy with the attainment of self-sufficiency in food. We faced nightmare of absolute shortage of food grains supplies in the 1960s, when the average annual imports of wheat hovered around three million tones. We survived through this phase because of the munificence of the US, which supplied wheat to us under its PL 480 programme. There have been several policy statements for agriculture during the last sixty years. India attained self-sufficiency in food grains in the 1970s and what is more, has emerged as an exporter of food grains in more recent years. Attainment of food self-sufficiency, even in a technical sense, is admittedly an important landmark in the history of growth of Indian agriculture, but this has not meant the dilution of problems facing Indian agriculture. Problems of agricultural growth and rural development in general continue to remain, in the new millennium, as daunting as they were in the 1950s. One major difference is that agricultural sector today faces a host of what we might call second generation problems.

Introduction

India has one of the best agricultural research systems in the world with better amount man-power amongst the developing countries. The research system includes more than 30,000 scientists along with 1,00,000 subordinate personnel actively engaged in research system in the country involved to agricultural research which considered to be second highest next to China. The achievement and success looks very much impressive and at par with all the developed nations of the world.

National Agricultural System

India has one of the largest agricultural research systems in the world with the largest number of scientific personnel of any developing country except China. The research system includes approximately 30,000 scientists and more than 100,000 supporting staff actively engaged in research related to agriculture. Although the total number of scientists engaged in agricultural research in India looks very impressive, it compares less favorably with many developed countries.

The present agricultural research system comprises essentially two main streams, the ICAR at the national level and the Agricultural Universities at the State level. Besides, several other agencies such as General Universities, Scientific Organizations, and various Ministries/Departments at the Centre, as also Private or Voluntary Organizations participate directly or indirectly in research activities related to agriculture.

Introduction

The crops, its significance along with its classification has got paramount importance in agricultural heritage. A crop is a plant or animal product that can be grown and harvested in an area with a target to earn profit or achieve subsistence. Crop may refer either to the harvested parts or to the harvest in a more refined state (husked, shelled, etc.). Most crops are cultivated in agriculture or aquaculture.

A crop is usually expanded to include macroscopic fungus (e.g. mushrooms), or alga (alga-culture) at the point of origination. Most crops are harvested as food for humans or livestock (fodder crops) or to get raw materials for agro-based industry. Some crops are gathered from the wild collection (including intensive gathering). The important non-food crops include horticulture, floriculture and industrial crops. Horticulture crops include plants used for other crops (e.g. fruit trees, grown single or in orchard). Floriculture crops include blanket plants, houseplants, flowering garden and pot plants, cut cultivated greens, and cut flowers. Industrial crops are produced for clothing (fiber crops), bio-fuel (energy crops, algae fuel), or medicine (medicinal plants).

Microbes (fungi, bacteria or viruses) are rarely referred to as crops. Animals raised for human or animal consumption are referred to as livestock and microbes as microbiological cultures. Microbes are not typically grown for food itself, but are rather used to alter food (e.g., for production of citric acid, fermenting yogurt, soya sauce and so on). The importance of a crop varies greatly by region. Crop production depends on the availability of arable land and is affected in particular by yields, macroeconomic uncertainty, as well as consumption patterns; it also has a great incidence on agricultural commodities’ prices. The importance of crop production is related to harvested areas, returns per hectare (yields) and quantities produced. Crop yields stands for harvested production per unit of harvested area for the particular crop i.e. products. In most of the cases yield data are not recorded, but are obtained by dividing the production data by the data on area harvested. The actual yield that is captured on farm depends on several factors such as the crop’s genetic potential, the amount of sunlight, water and nutrients absorbed by the crop, the presence of weeds and pests infestation. These indicators are presented for wheat, maize, rice and soybean. Crop production is measured in tons per hectare, in thousand hectares and thousand tons.

Introduction

Agriculture is that the back-bone of the economics of eveloping country likes India. It’s additionally the most “culture” for rural families even nowadays agriculture and allied activities build the one largest contribution to gross domestic product. Female are mother of the race and liaison between generations. Female’s role in agriculture and agricultural heritage described and recognized by the United Nations Organization (UNO) that has sustained the expansion of society wrought the long run of states. Within the rising advanced social state of affairs female have a role to play. Rural females are the foremost vital productive hands within the economy of majority of the developing nations together with India. Female are concerned all told the aspects of agriculture. India incorporates a preponderantly rural economy. Seventieth of her population is rural; of these households, have interaction in agriculture as their main supply of financial gain. It’s forever been India’s most vital economic sector. Female plays a significant role during this vital agricultural sector, as a result of it’s for the most part a ménage enterprise. Female in India are major producers of food in terms important, volume and variety of hours worked. Nearly 63% of all economically active men are engaged in agriculture as compared to seventy eight per cent of female. Nearly 50% of rural female employees are classified as agricultural labourers and thirty seventh as cultivators. Concerning 70% of farm work was performed by women. In several countries, women play a major and crucial role in agricultural development and agricultural allied fields together with, main crop production, live-stock production, gardening, post-harvesting operations, agro/social biology, fishing etc. as it is evident; it’s a reality long taken without any consideration however unheeded since ages. Hence, here a try has been created (i) to review the role of female in agriculture and changes in their position at small level, that’s village level (ii) to review the gender discrimination in land, labour and wage market.

Introduction

Medicinal plants are considered as rich ingredients resources which may be utilized in medicines development pharmacopoeia, non-pharmacopoeia or synthetic industry. Apart from any region, these plants play a critical role within the development of human cultures around the whole world. Plant is a crucial source of drugs and plays a key role in world health. Medicinal herbs or plants are known to be a critical potential source of therapeutics or curative aids. The utilization of medicinal plants has attained a commanding role in health system all over the place the planet. This involves the utilization of medicinal plants not just for the treatment of diseases but also as potential material for maintaining healthiness and conditions. Many countries within the world, that is, two-third of the world’s population depends on herbal medicines for primary health care. The explanations for this are often due to their better cultural acceptability, better compatibility and adaptableness with the physical body poses lesser side effects. Evidently, records showed that most of the used drugs contain plant extracts. Some are containing active ingredients (bioactive components or substances) obtained from plants. Through recent researches, it revealed that plant-derived drugs were mostly discovered from the study of curative, therapeutic, traditional cures and above all the folks knowledge of indigenous people and a few of those claims and believe of individuals are irreplaceable despite the recent advancement in science and technology. A number of the drugs believed to be obtained from plants are aspirin, atropine, artimesinin, colchicine, digoxin, ephedrine, morphine, physostigmine, pilocarpine, quinine, guanidine, reserving, taxol, tubocurarine, vincristine and vinblastine. The importance of medicinal plants can’t be taken lightly; therefore, it’ll be of significance to look at the characteristics and roles of photochemical in a number of the medicinal plants commonly utilized throughout the world.

Introduction

The literary meaning of voyage is a long journey by water or air to a distance place. The crop voyage means the introduction of different crops from outside and movement of the crops originated in India to abroad. India is one of the mega agro-biodiversity countries of the world. Many plant species have been domesticated here. The agro-biodiversity of the indigenously domesticated higher plant species was further enriched with introduction of exotic crops since ancient times, as reflected by the presence of American cereals such as maize and amaranths, African cereals such as pear millet and sorghum, West Asian legumes such as field pea, grass pea and chickpea, and Chinese proso millet and buckwheat in the archeological remains and/or in ancient Indian agriculture writings. Most of these crops have acclimatized and adapted to diverse ecological conditions offered by the Indian Sub-continent to such an extent that many appear natural to the land, and have thrown enormous genetic diversity, making India either a secondary center of diversity for crops such as pearl millet, sorghum, maize, amaranths, cowpea, niger, safflower, muskmelon, pumpkin, chilies and others or regional center of diversity for crops such as barley, grain amaranth, buckwheat, pearl millet, foxtail millet, chickpea, bottle gourd and others. All details of crop voyage has already been discussed in the relevant topic of discussion (Chapter 8) on “Journey of agriculture and its development from past to modern era.”

Introduction

Indigenous Technological Knowledge (ITKs) refers to the knowledge that acceptable to all as absolute hearing and developed about the meticulous altitude by the people irrespective of gender that is women and men ancient to an a specific geographical area. This ancient technological knowledge that humans in an accustomed association accept developed over time and abide to advance it, is predicated on animal kingdom adventures on accumulation scale, activating and changing, activated throughout a lot of cases over centuries of use. Highest accessible knowledge to bounded knowledge and ambiance and put greater weightage on abbreviate risks instead of maximizing profit. The traditional technological knowledge (ITKs) covers a complicated sphere of subjects, viz. crop production, livestock rearing, accustomed knowledge management, ailment preparation, healthcare, insect administration, and others. The utilization of non-chemical methods for protecting lives and crop aegis is already accepting in several countries including India. The administration strategies developed and answer by the Governments is now supported the utilization of plant extracts. If an accomplishment is fabricated arise the cultivation of Indigenous Technological Knowledge (ITK) based articles on the small scale, it is often an economically applicable advantage for the appropriate development of eco-friendly chemicals.

Indian agriculture has been started over 10,000 years old, over millennia, farmers developed innumerable practices to auspiciously abound crops and accession animals within the awful adapted agro ecological regions of the Indian subcontinent. About 170 years of acceptance brought in new techniques, some advantageous in addition to a few harmful event of ancient Technological knowledge (ITK) systems, including administration of accustomed environment, has been a bulk of adaptation to the humans who generated these systems continued aback. Million of ITKs were supported to avail knowledge of actual and living assets to construct sure basal livelihoods for bounded people.

Introduction

Research accomplishments on mentioned findings showed that the quality of community voice like access is familiarized for agricultural revamp index that adapted the charge to findings at the lower like as the antecedence to analyze a number of deficiencies of complete analysis works in a specific area. Firstly, the accomplishments arise to be alloyed and diverse. Secondly, with the agricultural achievement of a span afflict decidedly by its natural, institutional and technological characteristics (which alter broadly an allocation of states), absolute analysis absorption abundantly at the accompaniment like and the change of basal up and micro-level planning emphasizing the issue. Thirdly, there is an absence of studies on agricultural achievement at the disaggregate like in the accompaniment excepting a few that does put up with are bedfast to the community set up and are based on an actual leap amount of variables accouterment periods up to the original since the year 2000. Besides a lot of changes in agriculture pattern, irrigation coverage, agriculture intensity, fertilizer consumption, boilerplate measurement of operational backing and allotment of agricultural workers accept taken abode in agriculture during the contemporary years. These changes knowledge accept afflict the agricultural achievement of districts abnormally and causeless to say they could not accept been grasped in the absolute studies. There is appropriately a charge for advantageous these analysis gaps and adorning the absolute literature. The present findings are an apprehensive advance in the management and administration to apperceive of the ITKs attainable and its role in alteration over agricultural production. In adjustment to access the acknowledgment of the farmers apropos the ITKs uses in agriculture, the analysis agenda developed with a proforma that accomplished in advised and basic villages in altered agro-ecological regions through the activity centers. Farmers’ social contact and acceptance of ITKs practices were attempted in the findings and recorded for an all-important symbol the abstracts to quantify the ITKs role in present-day agriculture.

Introduction

Indian agriculture began by 9000 BCE as an after effect of earlier agriculture of plants, and conduct of crops and animals. Settled activity once again followed with accessories and techniques accepting developed for agricultural heritage system. Previously, double monsoons led to two harvests accepting reaped in one year alike various countries. Indian online inscription once again able the prime via complete trading networks and adopted crops were at variance in India. Plants and animals are advised basal to their adjustment by the Indian that came to be admired and venerated. The boilerplate ages are of saying irrigation channels adeptness a new affiliated of accord in India and Indian crops affecting the economies of added regions of the world. Land and water management systems were developed with an aim of accouterment accordant growth and crop productivity. Despite some stagnation during the afterwards strike era the Republic of India was able to beforehand a complete agricultural programme. In India, there are about 110 crore of farmers engage i.e. two-third of complete workforce, contributes to 26 per cent of the GDP and about one-sixth of the complete address earnings. India associated a repulsive agricultural system at the time of expertise growing at a ritual quantity in advance of 0.3 per cent in the earlier bisected of the stand for the century. Perplexing building up of lateral population pressure provided by agricultural scientists and harder plan put in by the farmers due to the planned Government agricultural policies. Indian agriculture has able to provide a service in advance an amount of 2.7 per cent in the procession expertise in the following era. The beforehand in food particle accession was a lot of arresting at about 3.7 per cent compared to population before of 2.2 per cent during the decade of 1980’s. Unfortunately, it slowed down in 1990s to 1.8 per cent, lower than the population earlier by 2 per cent. Further, rural agriculture across too, the development has been admit in accession and prosperity of crops in several regions. All said and done, overriding the three-fold in advance at population by a four time admission in food stuff succession from the earlier 5 year plan to the change about of the period by all agencies an admirable achievement. The key macro indicator of borough expertise in agriculture comprised in advance jump in food succession from budgetary provision of rupees 50.8 crore in 1950-51 to 212 crore in 2000-2001. It is annual budget up to date that 92 per cent of the entrance in achievement has been technology-led. Thanks to the agricultural scientists for developing location based technologies and animate off to the Indian farmers for their activity to ideas, activity to acclimatize and as able to accepting of new and bigger authentic knowledge.

Introduction

Apart from the general way of flood-flushing practiced at different sites of Indus Civilization, mention may be made of the following practices particularly undertaken in Sind. This is evident in the writings of inscriptions on seals from Mohenjo-Daro which state: ‘Two canals were constructed in the month of Kudam (Aquarius) and Mina (pisces). Another seal records that it took ‘thirteen months to construct a canal’. These canals were cut at low gradient and waters were allowed to merge ultimately into low ground in a direction oblique to the river so as to secure a great fall as possible. This fall varied from a foot to a few inches in a mile. They were up to hundred feet wide and about a dozen feet deep, not enough to draw off from the river except in flood. These were natural streams and probably seasonal. The perennial canals of the Indus system were cut to an extra depth and could receive water even when the main river was low, but their real purpose seems to increase the discharge during inundation.

Irrigation system

Irrigation system was consisting of lifting of water by water-wheel and by means of Shaduf from adjoining water sources. There was also provision of tank irrigation. Rice cultivation shows necessary moisture of soil probably retained by now using contour bunding for locking up monsoon rain-waters by tank-irrigation. Rainfall under vernal equinox or winter solstice has not been given much importance in the context of agriculture. Artificial rain making agents was the twin stars, Asvinis and Dadhici, described as horse headed sign. The exact time of their appearance cannot be ascertained definitely. Their association with cool season can be surmised from their name Dasra implying the same as referred to in the text of Panini. Moreover, their attributes as sender of hima (cold or snowfall) after the scorching heat of summer associates them as belonging to vernal equinox. That they appeared at the time of sun’s movement to another house, is explicitly mentioned in the Rigveda. It is a fact which shows the rising of these stars at the junction of two solstices, summer and winter. The Rigveda in one place described them as associated with winter solstice. They were found to have been associated with three kinds of watery discharges, viz. rain (vristi), dew (madhu) and snow (hima).

Introduction

Evolution of agriculture in India has an ancient tradition of farming since beginning of human civilization. It has been referred in several ancient scripts including Vedic literature and many other ancient scriptures. Therefore, the study consists methods of cultivation, cropping pattern and status of agriculture sector in economy and in human life is essential for strengthen the agriculture sector during recent period. The agricultural sector in pre-independence India was very prone to breakdown and highly unstable. In other words, there was not stable production rate for various crops. The main reason for this was improper infrastructure for perennial irrigation, non-judicious water use, imbalance use fertilizers and manures, uncertainty and uneven distribution of rainfall throughout the year.

Importance of the farmers

Farmers, who put their labour in crop cultivation, grow crops in the land, supply food to the people generation to generation, most unprivileged and unorganized sector of their communities who used to sale labour. In ancient period, workforces were the actual owner of the land and their produce. Gradually, the farmers became paid workforce in the production system.

In the Sanskrit literature described “agriculture is a divine skill taught by sages to farmers for sustenance of life” and shows the high regard for farmers in society. The farmer was the Annadata that stands for the food provider. Farmers raised fodder for animals. Farmer planted and maintained the orchard of blessed trees after that to the village, maintained pasture land, grew herbs and medicinal plants for supply to the village physician, and fragrant flowers for worship at the temple. Farmers nurtured cattle, which gave milk and carried burdens for the community. Farmers, no doubt were the source of raw materials for all artisans and ever increasing population of the country. But farmers are often neglected, exploited, cheated and deprived from their own legitimate cash out. Farmers’ rights were slowly whittled down at first by foreign invasions, later by changes in the land ownership.

Introduction

The basic resources for agriculture are sunlight, soil and water, besides the seeds and animal breeds, and human Endeavour. Another important input is the agro technique. Agricultural production is adversely affected if any of these factors is limited, or disturbed. Obviously, scientific study enables technological innovations to manipulate these factors to maximize production. Increasingly nowadays, application of science and technology also involves preventing or at least minimizing wasteful use of precious resources. The basic and natural resources in agriculture has been discussed below.

1. Soil

Optimum land utilization is important if agriculture is to be productive. India has a wide variety of soils. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) classifies them into eight major types. Each has its own characteristics as well as deficiencies, and each is suitable for certain crops. Soils should be tested to check their physical characteristics and nutrients before a suitable crop is grown in it: only then can yield be maximized and soil not wasted.