eChapters

Introduction

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) absorb long-wave radiation emitted from the Sun and the Earth’s surface, and radiate it back to Earth’s atmosphere, creating the greenhouse effect. Gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O) occur in traces but play crucial roles in controlling the temperature of Earth’s atmosphere. The natural as well as anthropogenic activities have major impacts on the GHGs emissions that include continuously increasing concentration of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O in the atmosphere. The heat-trapping properties of these above mentioned GHGs are well established. Different GHGs have different warming potential (radiative forcing) on the global climate system due to their different radiative properties and lifetimes in the atmosphere. Changes in the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs modify the energy equilibrium of the climate system which leads to subsequent climate change. They affect the absorption, scattering and emission of radiation within the atmosphere and at the earth’s surface. Globally agriculture is estimated to account for 10%–20% of anthropogenic GHG emissions (Smith and Olesen 2010). Share of contribution of these gases towards global warming are different such as CH₄ 20-25%, CO₂ 40-50% and N₂O 5-10%; with present pace of increment every year 0.41, 0.42 and 0.25%, respectively IPCC, 2019.

Healthcare programs across many countries, particularly in developing nations, increasingly employ Behavior Change Communication (BCC) to enhance the health status and well-being of populations. BCC is a process designed to motivate individuals to adopt and maintain healthy behaviors and lifestyles. An effective BCC strategy plays a crucial role in implementing activities aimed at improving population health. Notably, BCC is a healthcare education strategy outlined in the Uttar Pradesh National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) with goals including reducing mortality, fertility, and morbidity.

Upon completion of this unit, learners should be able to:

• Explain the meaning and benefits of BCC in family healthcare.

• Discuss various channels of BCC.

• Formulate BCC strategies.

• Follow guidelines for successful BCC implementation.

Abstract

The J&K state, like other Himalayan states, is endowed with varied climates and agro-climatic situations and has the potential for improvement in a horticulture sector. Focus on selective issues based on the niches of the areas , strengthening the on-going programs of different developmental departments, site specific issues, backed up with latest technologies need to be identified which can have tangible and immediate impact on the farm economy. The horticulture section is doing well in Jammu and Kashmir state when compared with others food crops, since it fetches good price because of its nature of seasonality. The estimation of the potential profits can be drawn by the fact that a farmer producing wheat of 1 kg gets 10 times higher prices for the same produce in horticulture section. Considering this high potential, the concept of doubling farmer’s income can work magically with horticultural crops. There is a need of shift from traditional crops and cropping patterns. Technological interventions are required to strengthen the conditions of cold storage, adoption of farming system approach, instead of cropping system approach, incorporating element of diversification, promotion of cultivation of high value crops, efficient post-harvest management, value addition etc. popularization of technologies and schemes to achieve targeted growth in horticulture. Strengthening water resources through rainwater harvesting, soil moisture conservation and efficient utilization of stored/conserved rain water (micro-irrigation, fertigation). Promotion of niche commodities based on agro-ecological situations will benefit promotional efforts in horticulture development with increased benefit cost ratio.

Introduction

Technical innovation is a process by which new or improved technologies are developed and brought to widespread use (Ambuj Sagar, 2013). Technical innovations are interlinked by research, development, demonstration and deployment which involves a range of organizations and personals with institutional arrangements underpinning the growth and advancement of different kinds of technologies. In the area of water productivity, technical innovations has helped expand water supplies through improved exploration and recovery techniques, increased water use efficiency, improved water availability and reduced environmental impact of water and its usage.

The inoculum dosage and method of application determines the efficacy of biofertilizers. The quantity of biofertilizers to be applied depends on the type of crop, seed rate and soil edaphic factors. There are 3 methods for inoculation of biofertilizers

Seed treatment: One packet containing inoculant (200 g) is mixed with 200 ml of rice gruel or 40 % gum arabic solution to make a slurry (Fig. 23). Then the seeds required for an acre are mixed in the slurry in such a manner that they have a uniform coating of the inoculant over the seeds. Then, the inoculated seeds are shade dried for 30 minutes. The shade dried seeds should be sown within 24 hours. One packet of the inoculant (200 g) is normally sufficient to treat 10 kg of seeds.

5.1 Important Terms

i. Inoculum: The infective pathogen propagules coming in contact with the host constitutes the inoculum. The inoculum in the liquid state is a significant factor in anaerobic digestion in solid phase because it is very useful to convey the micro organisms, the water of recirculation. Depending on the particular inoculant formulation, the inocula can be used for seed coating, for dipping seedlings, direct application to the furrow, or as foliar application. An appropriate inoculum consists of copious amounts of active microbes having the potential to convert the organic matter to biogas and the S/I ratio is essential for the rate of degradation of a recalcitrant substrate since it governs not only the biogas composition, digestion period and reactor. Spread of inoculum may occur by wind, water, infected plant material, insects, animals, birds, and people. Plant diseases may have more than one source of inoculum. The infection cycle of some economically important soil-borne plant pathogens involves a combination of primary infection from particulate inoculum residing in the soil and secondary infection as disease is spread from infected to susceptible hosts.

The infectivity of inoculum can be quantified by the pathozone profile which measures changes in the probability of infection when inoculum occurs at different distances from the host. For instance, the germinability of inoculum, the growth of the mycelial colony and the infectivity of mycelium at the surface of the host combine to dictate the shape of the pathozone profile for Rhizoctonia solani on radish. The ultimate shape of the pathozone depended on inoculum type and was particularly sensitive to changes in the density and distribution of the mycelium in the fungal colony. Mycelium from an infected radish plant grew much further and at a higher density than that from particulate inoculum (mycelial discs). This results in pathozone profiles that differed in shape. For particulate inoculum the profile rise and fall with distance whilst for an infected plant the decay is sigmoidal.

4.1 Introduction

Fruit tree plantations are increasing gradually, sometimes at the expense of marginal lands. Consequently, limiting soils are now being used for crop production. Such soils are considerably constrained in terms of infiltration, retention, and transmission of water, and also regarding the salinity and/ or nutrient content. A number of agronomical techniques can be used to improve soil productivity for agricultural purposes; however, many of them are ineffective or unsustainable. Mulching techniques have emerged in recent years to address these soil constraints yielding positive results in a variety of scenarios. Zribi et al. (2015) reported the positive effects of mulches and organic amendments on soil physical properties such as increased water retention and decreased soil evaporation.

Mulching is the process of covering soil around plant root area with some extraneous matter of organic or inorganic in nature with a view to insulate the plant and its roots from the effects of extreme temperature fluctuations and make conditions more favourable for growing, as well as avoid weed germination and to conserve the available soil moisture.

Soil is a dynamic natural body of the uppermost layer of earth’s crust produced by the transformation of mineral and organic substances on the earth’ s surface under the influence of environmental factors over a long period. It is the most basic of all natural resources upon which all living forms on the terrestrial ecosystem directly and indirectly depends. However, soil resources are finite, nonrenewable, fragile and heterogeneous in space and time. As a component of pedosphere, it occurs as interface between the lithosphere and atmosphere and strongly interacts with biosphere and hydrosphere (Figure 1 & 2).

11.1. Introduction
The input-output relationship is commonly referred to as the Classical Production Function.
The Classical Production Function is also known as the Law of Diminishing Returns or the Law of Increasing Costs.
It is sometimes termed the “Law of Life”, as it serves as a fundamental principle of economics upon which several other economic laws are based.
This law analyzes the relationship between a single variable factor and output while keeping all other factors constant.
It represents a short-run production function.
11.2. Definition
The Law of Increasing Cost states that the proportion of one factor in a combination of factors increases till a certain point but after that first the marginal product then the average product will diminish.
According to Marshall “An increase in capital and labour applied in the cultivation of land causes in general less than proportionate increase in the amount of produce raised, unless it happens to coincide with the improvements in the arts of agriculture”.
According to Earl O. Heady “If the quantity of one of productive service is increased by equal increments, with the quantity of other resource services held constant, the increments to total product may increase at first but will decrease after certain point”.

Introduction

Entomophagy, the consumption of insects, is rooted in human evolutionary history (Fontaneto, 2011). Throughout Africa, Europe, Asia, and Latin America, insects have held a vital position in the timeline of human nutrition. There exist more than 1900 documented species of insects that serve as human diets at globally, with notable groups encompassing grasshoppers (Orthoptera), caterpillars (Lepidoptera), grubs (Coleoptera), wringed termites (Isoptera), some hymenopteran insects, cicadas (Hemiptera), and a diverse array of aquatic insects. It is intriguing to observe that insects are regularly consumed by over two billion people, and in specific regions, they make up a substantial portion of the animal proteins consumed.

Many chemical and visual lures attract insects and therefore can be used as attractants to monitor or directly catch and reduce insect populations. These attractants are used in ways that do not injure other animals or humans or result in residues on foods or feeds, and can be used in an environmentally sound manner in pest management programs.

Objective

The aim of this practical is to categorize insects based on their wing characteristics.

Introduction: Insect classification, as outlined by A.D. Imms (1957), divides Class Insecta or Hexapoda into two primary groups:

Group 1: Apterygota: These insects lack wings, and the absence of wings is considered primitive. Metamorphosis is minimal or absent. Adults typically possess one or more pairs of pregenital abdominal appendages. The mandible of adults usually articulates with the head capsule at a single point. This group comprises four orders:

1. Thysanura - Example: Silverfish

2. Diplura - Example: Japygids

3. Protura - Example: Telson tails or proturans

4. Collembola - Example: Springtails

Many insect can be observed at any hour of the day. This is proper understanding of the taxonomy and biology. The insect collection, storage and preservation are useful technique of their culture. The best period for collection is from early spring to late rainfall and the best time of the collection of most of the species is during the daytime. The insect are polyphagous and therefore, plants provide one of the best collecting places. Insect can be picked, swept off the plant with the help of a net. Different species feed on different kinds of plant, one should therefore, examine all sorts of plant, flowers weed shrubs and trees. Few insect are only found in the stem, bark, wood, fruit or roots etc. Some species can be found in the leaf mud and litter on the surface of the soil, particularly in woods or areas where the vegetation is dense, others can be found under stones bark etc. other house hold insects may be observed feeding on clothing, furniture, grain, food and other parts of Plant and House and some are aquatic insects.

Endoskeleton of the Head (Tentorium)

• The tentorium forms during development when 2-4 pairs of apophysis/ apodemes (finger-like invaginations of exoskeleton) fuse internally to create a “bridge”.

• The major components of the tentorium are the anterior tentorial arms, the posterior tentorial arms, the dorsal tentorial arms, and the tentorial bridge.

• The anterior tentorial arms originate as invaginations at the lateral limits of the frontoclypeal suture. The coalescence of the anterior tentorial arms forms a more or less solid structure, the tentorial bridge.

• The posterior tentorial arms arise from pits at the ventral ends of the post occipital suture and they unite to form a bridge running across the head from one side to the other.

• In many insects, e.g. Orhtoptera, the central part of the composite tentorium enlarged to form a broad plate referred to as the Corporotentorium.

• The tentorium serves as an internal “truss” that reinforces the head capsule, cradles the brain, provides attachment for muscles and provides a rigid origin for muscles of the mandibles and other mouthparts. The antennal muscles also arise from the tentorium.

Introduction

Insects, classified under the Class Insecta within the Phylum Arthropoda, exhibit diverse characteristics. Sometimes, distinguishing between different arthropods is necessary to confirm their classification as insects. Biologists frequently employ dichotomous keys, systematic tools designed to assist in organism identification, to navigate this task.

Instructions

Follow the steps outlined below to identify the insects described. Utilize the provided dichotomous keys and accompanying figures to aid in the identification process.

Insect infestation occurs in stored grains and grain products to variable extent depending upon the storage conditions in developing countries. The losses of nutritional compounds are proportional to the extent of insect infestation, nature of insect feeding and distribution of nutritional chemicals in different seed components.

1. Sources of Insect Infestation

There are many sources that leads to infestation in storage, viz., left over seed from bins or stores or spilled seeds under the stacks, cleanings, sweepings of storage structure, processing plants, old infested stores, old gunny bags, insect infested transport vehicles, storing insect infested seeds with fresh stock or vice-versa, entry of insects from neighbouring stores and carry over of field infestation

The inspection of storage facilities and the food products they contain is crucial for preserving grain intended for human consumption. Stored grain is not simply a passive substance; it is a living, breathing organic entity that undergoes deterioration during storage. This deterioration can occur in terms of quantity, through dry matter loss (DML), or quality, with issues such as discoloration, mold contamination, sprouting, and caking caused by microorganisms, invertebrate pests (insects and arachnids), and vertebrate pests (rodents and birds). Additional weight loss happens during the handling, transportation, and processing of stored grains.
To gather accurate data on all forms of loss, regular and thorough inspection and sampling are essential. These inspections are crucial for making informed management decisions regarding remedial actions against biological deterioration agents or the disposal of grain, taking into account the condition of both the commodity and the storage environment. Regular inspections help maintain a storage environment that supports grain quality by keeping track of any significant pest population increases, grain temperature, moisture migration, spillage, and grain residues.
Such inspections also encourage the general upkeep of the storage structure and its surroundings, which helps to minimize pest access. By addressing cracks and crevices in the storage fabric and removing old, often infested, bags and equipment, the risk of pest infestation is significantly reduced.
The inspection should address several factors:
• The presence of pests, if any
• Identification of species, population densities, and locations
• Damage inflicted prior to inspection
• The growth potential of pest populations or whether they will die out if conditions remain the same

Apterygotes

The Apterygota, which formerly included the other primitively wingless insects currently placed in the class Entognatha, are now restricted to the two orders Archaeognatha and Zygentoma, which in turn were formerly united as the Thysanura. Despite the superficial similarity of the two groups, it is now clear that they are not closely related, mainly because of fundamental differences in the mouthparts. The Archaeognathous mandibles are monocondylic, having a single articulating point with the head so that the mandible can rotate. The Zygentomous mandibles are dicondylic, with two articulating points that restrict the motion to a single plane yet enable the development of a much stronger biting action; this is the type found in all the higher insects, and the Zygentoma may well be the sister group of the Pterygota, or winged insects. Clearly the ‘Apterygota’ is not a monophyletic group and is simply retained for convenience in grouping these two orders that superficially resemble each other and have similar life histories.