eChapters

Rice-wheat is a dominant cropping system in the Indo-Gangetic Plains covering approximately an area of 10.5 million ha. Modern agricultural production practices have emphasized the widespread use of fertilizers as a source of nutrients. The continuous use of high levels of chemical fertilizers over a prolonged period, decline in area under legumes and reduction in the use of organic manures has resulted in soil degradation and environmental pollution. It is estimated that the gap between nutrient removal by crops and addition through fertilizers in India will remain at level of 8-10 million tones per annum. Such negative nutrient balances are depleting the soils of their nutrient reserves resulting in acute deficiencies of nutrients. Integrated plant nutrient supply (IPNS) is an important component of sustainable agricultural intensification. The goal of integrated nutrient management (INM) is to integrate the use of all natural and man-made sources of plant nutrients, so as to increase crop productivity in an efficient and environmentally benign manner, without diminishing the capacity of the soil to be productive for present and future generations. The INM is made up of components which possess great diversity in terms of chemical and physical properties, nutrient release efficiencies, positional availability, crop specificity, and farmers’ acceptability. Since organic manures cannot meet the total nutrient needs of modern agriculture, integrated use of nutrients from fertilizers and organic resources seems to be a need of the time. For INM to make desirable progress and find wide acceptance, nutrient supply packages for important agroecological environments need to be developed. These should be technically sound, practically feasible, economically attractive and socially acceptable. Integrated plant nutrient systems can ensure long-term sustainability of agricultural growth through improvement in soil health and will significantly reduce the needs for chemical fertilizers. The complementary use of chemical fertilizers and organic fertilizers may increase the efficiency of chemical fertilizers in order to maintain a high level of crop productivity. Because of low primary nutrient content and thus the need for large applications per unit area, farmers and policy makers are often reluctant to adopt and promote the use of organic fertilizers. The different components of INM possess great diversity in terms of chemical and physical properties and nutrient release patterns.

Introduction

Seed spices include group of annuals whose dried fruit or seeds are used as spices. These are characterised by pungency, strong odour, sweet or bitter taste. Coriander, cumin, fennel and fenugreek occupy largest area among the seed spices. However, ajowan, dil, celery, anise, nigella and caraway having secondary place as far as area and production is concerned. Major area under seed spices is in Rajasthan and Gujarat, and other seed spices producing states are Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. The seed spices account for about 36% and 17% of the total area and production of spices in country. The export of seed spices from India during 2008-09 was 4.71 thousand tonnes worth Rs. 54914.8 million rupees. The per cent export growth rate during 1995-96, 2000-01, 2005-06, 2007-08 and 2008-09 was 12.0, 11.0, 8.0, 36.0 and 19.0% in terms of value and 13.0, 3.0, 8, 13.0 and 6.0 in respect of quantity, respectively.

Integrated plant nutrient management includes use of organic manure/ compost, bio-fertilizer, chemical fertilizer, green manuring, residue management, legume based cropping system, use of nutrient-responsive varieties, proper method and time oforganic manure and fertilizer application, soil and water management to minimize the nutrient losses occurring through volatilization, denitrification, runoff and leaching. Application of plant nutrients in proper balance form is also a part of Integrated Plant Nutrient Management (IPNS) system. Supply of nutrients to seed spices in appropriate quantities and at the correct times is essential for economically and environmentally sustainable agriculture. Soil organic matter, crop residues and manures play a vital role in the supply of macro and micronutrients and the transformation between the various organic and inorganic forms often control availability, both for plant uptake and loss to the environment (Aishwath and Vashishtha, 2008; Lal, et al., 2009).

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] is the leading oilseed crop in the world. Its area and production are far ahead of other oilseeds at the global level (Table 1). The commercial cultivation of this crop in India started in the early 1970’s. Within a span of 4 decades its spread has been phenomenal and today it occupies around 9.67 million hectares with a production of about 10.22 million with an average productivity of around 1006 kg ha^-1 (DSR, 2010) (Table 2). It is now the fourth largest among field crops after rice, wheat and maize (GOI, 2007) in India and has become the leading oil seed crop surpassing groundnut and mustard and rapeseed. It is contributing nearly 37% to the total oilseeds produced in India. The central India comprising the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan account for more than 95% of the total area under this crop. Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh etc account or the bulk ofthe rest ofthe area. It is predominantly a rainfed crop with only about 3% of the total area getting some assured irrigation facility. Further, it is concentrated in areas which receive lesser rainfall in its early vegetative phase. A large number of crops have been replaced by soybean to a variable extent in its march towards achieving its present position. Badal et al. (2000) have reported that a large number farmers switched over to this crop from sorghum, groundnut, maize, cotton etc in the state of Madhya Pradesh owing to greater yield potential even under adverse conditions (Table 3). Further, it has become an integral part of several cropping systems including both intercropping and-sequential cropping systems in different parts of the country.

Pulses are known for their soil fertility restoration value. Deep rooting, nitrogen fixation, leaf shedding ability and mobilization of insoluble soil nutrients are some of the unique characteristics of pulses. By improving chemical, biological and physical environment in the soil, pulses can arrest the declining trend in productivity of cereal-cereal system. Inclusion of pulses in intensive cereal based system itself is a component of integrated plant nutrient supply system. Therefore, pulses have become viable alternative to improve the soil health and conserve the natural resources and agricultural sustainability. Pulses in the cereal/oilseed based cropping systems are introduced to break the monotony of crop rotation. Pulses being rainfed low input crop provide safeguard against crop failure due to scanty rainfall and adverse weather conditions. Apart from enriching soil fertility, introduction of pulses in cropping system also improves nitrogen economy. Early pigeonpea-wheat sequence was evaluated and found promising than traditional rice-wheat cropping system in irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, central and western Uttar Pradesh.

3.1. Integrated nutrient management

Maintenance of soil fertility and plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for sustaining the desired productivity through optimization of all possible sources of organic, inorganic and biological components in an integrated manner.

3.2. Concepts

Regulated nutrient supply for optimum crop growth and higher productivity.

Improvement and maintenance of soil fertility.

Zero adverse impact on agro – ecosystem quality by balanced fertilization of organic manures, inorganic fertilizers and bioinoculants in an integrated manner.

Integrated nutrient management is considered to be the key for achieving higher yield of crops and cropping systems. In general, the productivity of pulse crops has remained low mainly for two reasons: cultivation on agriculturally marginal soils and little if any crop inputs. Among production inputs, fertilizer plays a key role in pulses too like other crops for enhancing productivity levels. Most of the pulses fix atmospheric N, which is the predominant mechanism to meet their N requirement. It can enrich soil fertility by fixing nitrogen. It has been estimated that chickpea can fix (convert atmospheric nitrogen to organic nitrogen which would be available for subsequent crops)up to 140 kg nitrogen per hectare in a growing season, although measured values are usually in the range of about 20-60 kg nitrogen per hectare (Reddy 2004). It has been well established that long duration pigeonpea in northern India can fix nitrogen in the order of 200 kg/ha when grown over a 40 week period. Pigeonpea can also have substantial residual effects on subsequent crops. For example, medium-duration pigeonpea grown at the International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) (Asia Centre) could benefit a subsequent maize crop to an extent equivalent to 40 kg nitrogen per hectare. However, this capability is jeopardized through insufficient supply of other plant nutrients. General recommendations for phosphorus (P) fertilization are made in most states. However, K application is generally neglected, resulting in imbalanced nutrient supply and lower crop yields. Under intensive cropping systems, large amounts of K are removed, leading to serious depletion of soil K reserves. Pulses such as chickpea and pigeonpea remove about 60 and 52 kg K₂O/t of grain, respectively. Information compiled from various sources on integrated nutrient management in pulse/pulse based cropping systems in different agroecological regions of the country suggest that there is a wide scope for practicing integrated plant nutrient (IPN) practices in pulses and pulse based cropping systems. Practicing of INM not only economize inorganic fertilizer use but also helps in balanced fertilization and improving soil health and productivity through complimentaryeffects of fixed N by pulses and applied phosphorus and potassium.

10.1 Introduction

• In case of integrated nutrient management, all types of nutrients are supplied in the form of organic or inorganic manures and fertilizers to maintain uniform soil fertility.
• Continuous use of fertilizers spoils the soil structure and soil becomes unproductive in due course.
• Fertilizers applied along with sufficient quantities of organic manures will improve the efficiency of the fertilizers. Green manuring should be done every year or once in two years during the rainy season.
• Suitable bio-fertilizers should also be applied from time to time.
• Plants need adequate supply of sixteen essential nutrients for their normal growth and production, out of which carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) are needed in larger quantities and are referred as macro-nutrients, whereas, zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo) and chlorine (Cl) are required in smaller quantities and thus called as micro-nutrients.
• An essential element is distinguished from a non-essential one on the basis of following criteria:
  1. The plant is unable to grow normally and complete its life cycle in the absence of the element.
  2. The function of the element is specific and cannot be replaced by any other element.
  3. The element plays a direct role in the metabolism of the plant.

The introduction of high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice, the development of intensive cereal–cereal rotations (rice–wheat, rice–rice, hybrid maize–wheat), application of high doses of N (above 100 kg N ha^–1 to each crop) without adequate P and K application, increased use of high-analysis fertilizer (urea and diammonium phosphate in place of ammonium sulphate and superphosphate) and ignoring the application of organic manures led to heavy depletion of P, K, S, Zn and other plant nutrients, which led to wide-spread de?ciencies of P, S and Zn in Indian soils. These de?ciencies of nutrients led to focus on integrated nutrient management.

Farming system approach addresses itself to each of the farmer enterprises; inter relationship among enterprises and between the farm and environment. Thus farming system research has the objective of increasing productivity of various enterprises in the farm. Farming system approach introduces a change in farming technique for high production from a farm as a whole with the integration of all the enterprises. The farm produce other than the economic products for which the crop is grown can be better utilized for productive purposes in the farming system approach. A judicious mix of cropping system with associated enterprises like dairy, poultry, piggery, fishery, sericulture etc. suited to the given agro-climatic conditions and socio economic status of farmers would bring prosperity to the farmer.

Combination of Integrated farming system (IFS) along with organic farming so called integrated organic farming system (IOFS)appear to be the possible solution to the continuous increase of demand for food production, stability of income and improvement of nutrition for the small and marginal farmers with limited resources. Integration of different enterprises with crop activity as base will provide ways to recycle products and waste materials of one component as input through another linked component and reduce the cost of production of the products which will finally raise the total income of the farm. This becomes quite essential as crop cultivation is subjected to a high degree of risk and provides only seasonal, irregular and uncertain income and employment to the farmers. With a view to mitigate the risk and uncertainty in agriculture, IOFS serves as an informal insurance.

Production of agricultural crops, vary in response to changes of the seasons. In the recent period stable income of agricultural crops has become unstable. Redressing these by integrating crops with agro-based industries like livestock farming is essential. An integrated organic farming system applies the concept of “Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture” (LEISA) and this system develops the livestock business and the crop business in one location or area using local resources to optimize inputs. Designing a farming system to tie together principles of sustainability and productivity is complex. Organic farmers must consider how the various components of their system - rotations, pest and weed management, and soil health - will maintain both productivity and profitability. This section outlines the major principles incorporated into organic farming systems.

Most of the insect pest and disease (insects, mites, diseases, nematodes, etc.) management problems arise from relying entirely on pesticides for control. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a strategy that draws on a range of management tools with the goal of using the least ecologically disruptive techniques to manage pests within economically acceptable levels. IPM considers the production system in a holistic manner and looks at all aspects of the farming enterprise as potentially increasing or decreasing pest numbers and, where possible, enhancing the activities that reduce these pest populations.

Strategy for Integrated Pest and Disease Management

The basic IPM strategy involves routine crop monitoring to ensure that pesticides are only applied when needed, as well as to ensure appropriate timing of pesticide applications. The most developed bio-intensive IPM relies primarily on beneficial organisms to manage insect pests. When greater pest control is needed, interventions chosen are complementary to the survival of these beneficial organisms. As other pests are incorporated more and more prevention strategies are adopted which reduces the need for direct control practices.

14.1 Introduction

Sugarcane, basically a tropical crop in nature, requires a suitable high temperature, a lot of sunshine and rainfall ranging from 1250-2500 mm for its growth and yield. Relatively speaking, it is an intensive user of water as compared to rice and other crops. The total water requirement to mature the crop is about 64-80 acre inches.  Although globally but Brazil and Mexicos in Americas, India, Pakistan, Thailand and China in Asias, Australia and Africa, the Caribbean and to a smaller degree in southern Europe and the Middle East are major sugarcane growing areas in the World (Khan and Jamil, 1983). Historically famous for sugar, this crop has now attained a significant nadir for biofuel production (Mino, 2010).

Sugarcane, a perennial grass, is exposed to all sorts of biotic and abiotic adversaries. The variation in weather parameters like sunlight, temperature, rainfall, humidity and solar radiation affect the different phases of growth like germination, tillering, cane formation and cane stalk elongation, as well as the maturity and ripening phases of plant (Malik, 2009).

16.1 Introduction
According to Howard (2001) the major world crop palms are coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L), African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) and date palms (Phoenix dactylifera L). Many other palm species provide products for international commerce and also grown as ornamentals. Some palm species are of local or regional importance and have great potential for expanded development and distribution. In general, commercial production of palms regularly starts on or near natural habitats with little agricultural development.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective and environmentally friendly step towards pest control based on a combination of common practices. IPM programs use up-to-date and comprehensive information about the life cycle of pests and their interactions with the environment. This information, along with existing pest control methods, is used to control pest damage in the most cost-effective manner and with the least possible risk to people, property and the environment. The IPM methods can be used in agricultural and non agricultural areas, including homes, gardens and workplaces. IPM uses all pest control options, but not limited to the appropriate use of pesticides. In contrast, organic food production shares many of the same concepts as IPM, but limits the use of pesticides to those that come from natural sources rather than synthetic chemicals.

IPM is a set of pest management assessments, choices, and actions rather than a single approach of pest control. Growers using integrated pest management (IPM) that recognize the possibility of insect invasion employ a four-tiered strategy including establishing action levels, keep a look out for and recognize pests, its prevention and control.

IPM establishes an action threshold—a point at which insect populations or environmental circumstances suggest that pest control intervention is necessary—before implementing any pest control measures. It’s not always necessary to take action when one pest is seen. Future decisions about pest treatment must take into account the degree to which pests will pose an economic risk. Set thresholds through systematic, regular, and consistent monitoring. Develop thresholds that are appropriate for your circumstance. Modifying thresholds, management and monitoring techniques if necessary. For the majority of pest monitoring techniques, quantitative thresholds can be created, such as treating when specific circumstances are favorable for the onset of a disease or when the number or percentage of invertebrate pests or damaged plant parts surpasses predetermined limits. A good monitoring procedure involves knowledge of pest and beneficial species likely to be present, awareness of the critical crop development stages, good sampling and recording techniques and an estimate of infestation level.

1.1 Introduction

Over the centuries, farmers experimented and developed pest management practice to minimize the damage caused by pests. Paul Muller (1939) discovered insecticidal properties in DDT, which resulted in ushering the synthetic pesticide era. The period from the late 1940s through to 1960s has been called the ‘Dark Ages’ of pest control (Newsom, 1980). Calendar based pesticides schedules were developed by the scientists and disseminated to farmers by extension workers. During this period other control measures were not even considered for further research by the agriculture scientists. The intensification of agriculture with the excessive and indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides (DDT) in the 1940s and 1950s resulted in dysfunctional consequences like the resurgence of target pests, the appearance of new pests, and the development of tolerance to individual pesticides in many species (van Emden, 2002). The period was dominated by the belief that the pesticide was the only solution to pest management. In the 1960s itself, a major change in thinking occurred following the realization that pesticides had serious limitations and in several cases produce undesirable consequences (Norris et al., 2002). A solution to the problem caused by indiscriminate use of insecticide began to be developed by the entomologists through integrated control practices (Zodoks and Schein 1979).

Introduction

Food security is an agricultural issue that has political connotations in the world and more strikingly so in the developing world, where systems of governance has assumed and lost power on this issue. Agriculture not only contributes to the overall growth of the economy but also provides a vital livelihood base, employment and food security to the majority of the country’s population. Recent food price hikes have drawn the attention of the world’s policy-makers and news media to food security which triggered a wide variety of policy responses throughout the world. It threatens the food crisis and livelihood of millions of peoples suffering from hunger and poverty.

Introduction

Remarkable increase in fruit and vegetable crops cultivation under arid region of western India lead to drastic changes in the pest population dynamics. The productivity is concern, it is low because of harsh environment (high temperature, low precipitation, high PET, high wind velocity), poor soil fertility and salinity. Beside these, the biotic pressure like pests and diseases also play a critical role, which cause significant loss and adds to the cost of production.

The integrated pest management is a set of effective and environmentally safe pest management practices that takes advantages of all appropriate pest management options including, but not limited to, the judicious use of pesticides. The comprehensive information on the life cycles of pests and their interaction with the environment, and the available pest control methods are used to manage pest damage by the most economical means, and with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the environment. 

Introduction

The development of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was a response to the steadily increasing use of pesticides, which led to crises in pest control (outbreaks of secondary pests and pest resurgence following the development of pesticide resistance), as well as an increase in evidence and awareness of the full costs that the intensive use of pesticides imposes on human health and the environment. The term “Integrated Pest Management” (IPM) refers to the process of carefully considering all of the available methods of pest management and then subsequently incorporating suitable strategies that prevent the growth of pest populations. It integrates biological, chemical, physical, and crop-specific (cultural) management tactics and practices in order to cultivate healthy crops and avoid the use of pesticides. This helps to reduce or eliminate the hazards that pesticides cause to human health and the environment, which is essential for sustainable pest control. IPM is a dynamic process that makes use of an ecological systems approach and encourages the user or producer to examine and employ the complete range of optimal pest management choices available given economic, environmental, and social factors. IPM is accomplished via the use of an ecological systems approach. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is founded on ecology, the idea of ecosystems, and the objective of maintaining ecosystem processes. Additionally, it stimulates the use of natural pest management techniques, which in turn promotes the establishment of a healthy crop while causing the least amount of damage to agroecosystems as feasible.

Introduction

Banana (Musa sp; family: Musaceae) is the most popular commercial soft fruit crop grown in equatorial and subtropical regions of the world and also serves as a staple food since the dawn of recorded history in many countries (FAO, 2012). It has bounties of significance to the human beings and is one of the 4th most important food in the world after rice, wheat, and maize. Musa species grow in a wide range of environments ranging from the edible bananas and plantains of the tropics to cold hardy fiber and ornamental plants. They thrive well in an average annual temperature of 20^°C and well distributed rainfall of 200 cm per year (Simmonds, 1959; Wardlaw, 1961). Banana is a large, perennial, monocotyledonous herb 2-9 m in height that arises from large, subterranean rhizomes called ‘corms’. Musa fruits are variable in size, shape, and color. They are generally elongate cylindrical, straight to strongly curved, 7-40 cm long, and 2-8 cm in diameter. The fruit apex is an important attributes in variety identification.

Introduction

Cereal crops are of global importance and the lifeline of the humane civilization. Nutritionally, they are important sources of dietary protein, carbohydrates, Vitamin B complex, Vitamin E, iron, trace minerals and fiber. Major cereal crops produced worldwide include wheat, rice, maize and millets. Among them, wheat, maize and rice together comprise at least 75% of the world’s grain production. More than 70 per cent of the cereal crop produced in developed countries is fed to livestock whereas, in developing countries, 68-98 per cent of the cereal crop is used for human consumption (Chaven and Kadam, 1989). Rice is the most important and widely cultivated crop in the world and is the staple food for about 60% of the world’s human population. It is basically a crop of humid tropics, but it varies widely in physiological adaptability, hence grown successfully both in tropical and temperate conditions. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the another important and widely cultivated food crop in the world and important rabi crop of our country. In India, wheat is the second stable food crop after rice which contains more protein than any other cereals. Maize is an important kharif cereal in hilly, sub-mountained and even in plain regions of our country where it forms staple diet of the people.