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Endowed with varied agro-climatic situations, topography and soil type, India has been a leading vegetable producing country in the world occupying the second position in vegetable production after China with an annual production of 87.53 million tonnes from 5.86 million hectares having a share of 14.4 per cent to the world production. With commercial cultivation of as many as 61 annual and 4 perennial vegetables, India is the most diverse vegetable growing country in the world (Prakash et al., 2006). It is quite encouraging to know that our country occupies first position in cauliflower production and second in onion production. In India vegetables are grown both as mono-cropping (vegetable-vegetable cropping system) and sequential cropping after cereals, oil seeds and pulses. Besides, intercropping of vegetables with upland rice, maize, sugarcane, mango, papaya, banana and other fruit crops are also being encouraged in many areas. Vegetable based farming is rapidly emerging as one of the important  production systems in India  as this enterprise produces  a much higher income than any other type of farming in a shorter period of time. 

Introduction

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has evolved over the last five decades since Stern et al. (1959) first gave the concept of integrated control. The basic tactics of IPM were developed and applied to reduce crop losses against the ravages of pests before the term IPM was coined (Jones, 1973; Smith et al.,1973). Entomologist at the university of California, United State of America (USA) played a pivotal role in developing IPM tactics (Perkins, 1982). Development of resistance to insecticides and the elimination of natural enemies by insecticides led to the development of ‘supervised control’. The publication of the book ‘Silent Spring’ written by Rachel Carson (1962) was a defining milestone for it brought the problems caused by pesticides to the attention of the public and the scientists. The term ‘integrated pest management’ was used for the first time by Smith and van dan Bosch (1967). In the last five decade many synthetic pesticides have been banned. In 1972, ’integrated pest management’ and its synonym were incorporated into English dictionary and accepted by the scientific community (Kogan, 1998). IPM is the main strategy accepted for pest management under agenda 21 of the United Nations conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992).

Insect pests, diseases and weeds are major biotic bottlenecks in the production of crops, inflicting on an average about 30% yield loss. Monetary value of these losses has been estimated to be exceeding Rs 1,00, 000 crores. There is thus ample scope to enhance our food production by curtailing losses due to pests to certain extent. Only option to boost our production remains in growing improved crop cultivars with better pest management options. Mainly synthetic pesticides have been used to combat pest menace in agriculture and public health. Pesticides have, of course, played a commendable role in increasing our food production and protecting us against disease vectors. However sole reliance on pesticides has created several problems such as development of resistant pests, pest outbreaks, mortality of useful organisms, adverse effect on human health and environmental degradation. Adverse effects of pesticides prompted scientists to look for safer and environment friendly methods of pest control and consequently concept of pest management came in to being.

Pest management is known as an ecological approach to tackle pest problems, because here emphasis is on containing pests in such a way that other biotic components of the system such as natural enemies, human beings and wildlife etc are not harmed and environment is preserved in general. Pest management works on the premise that all pest population levels are not injurious to crops and crops can always compensate for certain injury due to pests. Moreover, some pest population is always required for the survival of natural enemies of the pests. This has given rise to the concept of economic injury level (EIL), which helps to avoid unwarranted application of pesticides. The EIL based pesticide application ensures favourable cost-benefit ratio to farmers. Pest management also underlines that pest control tactics should be socially acceptable and within the reach of farmers. It is a holistic approach to pest problems in which we aim to protect our commodities against all the pests and ensure production of healthy crops.

In the past, focus on implementing plant protection measures was given to cereals, largely because of their central role in food security, however, recent shortages in legumes has warranted an all out attention on edible pulses. For more than four decades, the concept of integrated pest management (IPM) - which combines a range of controls, including conserving natural predators, using pest resistant crop varieties, intercropping and rotation, with judicious use of pesticides -has struggled to gain ground against conventional agricultural ideology and practices. But it is now increasingly challenging the methods of high-input agriculture and policies arising with implementation of General Agreement forTrade andTariffs (GATT) & World Trade Organization (WTO) that cannot be ignored. In fact, a major factor responsible for sustaining soil productivity in this country has been the highly diversified nature of the cropping patterns which either include a pulse crop or a legume crop as one of the components. India is the largest producer of pulses in the world with 25% share in the global production. While chickpea is the topper among pulses occupying 39% of pulse area, pigeon pea is next with 21% area. The major pulse producing states are Maharashtra (20%), Madhya Pradesh (17%), Rajasthan (11%), Uttar Pradesh (11%) andAndhra Pradesh (11%) together accountingfor 70% of thetotal production of 14.76 m.t from an area of 23.63 m ha (www.agricoop.nic.in, 2007-08). In general, the pulse production is not keeping pace with the domestic requirements, hence, the country has to import 1.5-2.8 m.t per year, which is a matter of concern. Keeping this in view, the 1PM programme covers the two important pulse crops viz., chickpea and pigeon pea, across different cropping systems which will take care of changing scenario emerging out of climatic changes as well as cropping patterns. The present strategy, which is based on a holistic approach and changing ecosystem, will help in increasing production through reduction in pest infestation that would eventually reduce the need for the import of these two vital commodities.

8.1. Definition

Managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools to minimize economic, health, and environmental risks.

Insects and mites that damage crops, pathogens that cause diseases in plants, weeds that compete with field crops for nutrients and water, plants that choke irrigation channels or drainage systems, rodents that eat young plants and grain, and birds that eat seedlings or stored foodstuffs are all crop pests. As plants were domesticated and grown, increasingly in monoculture, the potential damage caused by their co-evolved pests and disease pathogens were realised.

11.1 Introduction

• Pest problems in fruit production has increased the cost of tree/plant protection and squeezed the profit of the fruit growers.
• In India, there are several existing or potential key pests for each fruit trees whose population densities must be kept at sub-economic levels to sustain higher per unit production at the farmers’ fields.
• During the second part of 20th century, the major emphasis was on pest control, which involved a set of actions to avoid, alternate or delay impact of pests on crops, which mainly involved pesticide application with the sole aim of eradication.
• Since horticultural crops like fruits are intensively cultivated that allow more inputs cost, the use of insecticides for the control of specific pests of a particular fruit crop has increased manifold during the last few decades. However, the toxic materials generated from chemical use in crop production has polluted the environment, because majority of them are not biologically degradable. They have harmed consumers’ and farmers’ health.
• Uses of broad-spectrum chemicals for pest control have a very negative impact on our efforts to conserve biodiversity. Because of their broad-spectrum nature of effect, it not only kills enemy insects but also useful insects like honey bees.
• The pest control option based on pesticide applications virtually eliminates the bee keeping activity.

The problem of insect-pest, disease and weed is acute in case of all the crops and especially so in case of commercial crops. Pesticides, fungicides or chemicals are meant to control harmful pests such as insects, nematodes, diseases, weeds etc. However, excessive use of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides not only leave residues in soil, water and air but also have adverse effects on the non-target organisms such as pollinators, parasitoids, predators and wild animals. This has adversely affected the ecological balance resulting in pest resurgence, development of resistance in the pest species, diseases and environmental pollution.

Definitions of IPNM 
Concept of IPNM 
Main objectives of INM 
Components of IPNM

6.1. Introduction

The growing human population presents a number of issues, including food scarcity, malnutrition, inadequate natural resources (land and water) for agricultural production, and environmental deterioration (MacDonald, 2010). Today, viable intensification of agri-production systems can fulfill rising food, nutrition and environmental demands (Pretty and Bharucha, 2014). Production of rice (Oryza sativa L.), a vital element of food security, which feeds nearly half of the world's population, occupies 143 million hectares of land (FAOSTAT, 2023), and uses up to 90% of all irrigation water in Asia (Liu et al., 2018). For instance, it has been determined that systems for producing rice are one of the main industries that wastes water resources and greatly increases greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, 2013). Therefore, it is necessary to look for ways to manage the rice production system more effectively. In paddy rice systems, co cultivating aquatic animals (fish, shrimp, crab, shellfish, and ducks) and rice has been suggested as a way to reduce the risks of environmental pollution/ contamination linked with rice production while simultaneously optimizing the use of land and water resources to provide humans with both grains and meat (Hu et al., 2016; Ahmed and Garnett, 2011). Co-culture systems have drawn more interest recently due to their potential to reduce the stresses associated with environmental and food insecurity.

ntroduction

The marketing systems and post-harvest marketing infrastructure have not been able to keep pace with the growing production and marketable surplus. This has brought to the fore, the need for providing farmers with access to competitive markets with adequate infrastructure including cold chain logistics, to enable them to realise better prices on the one hand and providing nutritious food to consumers at stable and affordable prices on the other. With this objective in view, the Government of India on 13th November, 2013 approved the proposal of Department of Agriculture & Cooperation for continuation and integration of ongoing Central Sector Schemes as Integrated Scheme for Agricultural Marketing (ISAM) during the XII Plan (2012-2017). The ISAM have the following five sub schemes: (i) Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure (AMI) [the existing schemes of Grameen Bhandaran Yojana (GBY) and Development/Strengthening of Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure, Grading and Standardization (AMIGS) will be merged as AMI] (ii) Marketing Research and Information Network (MRIN) (iii) Strengthening of Agmark Grading Facilities (SAGF), (iv) 

ABSTRACT

Worldwide reinterpretation of evolutionary history of sedimentary basins had commenced with the introduction of sequence stratigraphic concepts by geoscientists of Exxon. The eustatic sea level controlled deposition in sedimentary basins together with synchronous excursions of many trace elemental and stable isotopic compositions of sedimentary strata have led to a proposition that geographically widely separated sedimentary strata could be classified and correlated with ease by application of sequence stratigraphy and chemostratigraphy, relatively younger branches. This paper reviews the key definitions of these stratigraphic methods, presents an overview on their applicability in petroleum exploration, reservoir characterization and stratigraphic correlation. Considering the man-hours required for interpretation of sequences and chemozones from large quantum of core samples being generated from exploration activities and the possibility of human-error and biased nature of interpretations, an automation scheme involving statistical discrimination is suggested. The statistical discrimination method has been tested to have 76-100 % distinction of depositional units of Recent – Cretaceous in age in terms of sequences, chemozones, lithostratigraphic units, petrographic types and sedimentary microenvironments with 100% reproducibility of predictions. Hence, creation of a large database with well constrained subpopulations and putting it to use for recognition of depositional units and correlation of strata and reservoir characterization is suggested which may reduce operational inconsistencies and improve exploration strategies.

The method known as integrated water management (IWM) in agricultural crops is an all-encompassing strategy that aims to maximize the effectiveness of water use, enhance crop output, and guarantee the management of water resources in a sustainable manner. This method incorporates a number of different water management strategies, such as the timing of irrigation, the use of water-saving devices, the monitoring of soil moisture, and conservation measures. Combining these methods allows IWM to achieve its goal of limiting water losses caused by evaporation, runoff, and deep percolation while simultaneously ensuring that crop water demand is met by the available water supply. Mulching, cover cropping, and crop rotation are examples of cultural techniques that assist improve soil moisture conservation and decrease water loss via evaporation. The application of water may be made more exact and targeted by the use of mechanical technologies like as precision irrigation systems, drip irrigation, and soil moisture sensors. This helps to maximize the efficiency with which crops utilize water. Improvements in water retention and plant resistance to water stress may be achieved via the use of biological controls. These controls include the selection of drought resistant crop cultivars and the enhancement of the organic matter content of the soil. Chemical controls, such as the use of soil conditioners and wetting agents, have the potential to improve soil structure and infiltration, hence permitting improved water distribution and absorption by crops. In general, integrated water management (IWM) plays a significant part in reducing the issues associated with water shortages, fortifying agricultural systems against the effects of climate change, and fostering sustainable water use practices in agricultural systems.

Integrated water management, often known as IWM, is being more acknowledged as an essential component of environmentally responsible crop production in the horticulture industry. Horticultural crops, which include ornamentals, fruits, and vegetables, are very reliant on water in order to achieve their full potential in terms of development and yield. Nevertheless, techniques that are inefficient in terms of water management may result in the waste of water, the deterioration of soil, and contamination of the environment. Integrated Water Management (IWM) provides a comprehensive strategy for addressing these difficulties by using a variety of water management approaches, including irrigation scheduling, water saving devices, soil moisture monitoring, and conservation measures. The ideas and methods of integrated water management (IWM) in horticultural crops are investigated in this abstract, along with the advantages, problems, and possible solutions associated with IWM. IWM plays a critical role in assuring the long-term sustainability and productivity of horticultural crop production systems. It does this by maximizing the efficiency with which water is used, boosting crop resistance to water stress, and encouraging sustainable water resource management. The implementation of IWM methods has the potential to contribute to a more resilient, productive, and ecologically sustainable horticulture industry. This may be accomplished via cooperation between academics, farmers, policymakers, and other stakeholders.

Pulses in India are considered a residual crop and grown under rainfed conditions in marginal/ less fertile lands. About 90 percent of total pulse production comes from 97 million ha of rainfed areas in our country. Presently, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan contribute 85% of the total area and production of pulses in the country. Pulse crops usually face soil water deficits sometime during their growth cycles. Thus, drought stress is a common phenomenon and ranks high among all abiotic stresseslimiting yields of pulses (Ali and Mishra, 2000). Hence, there is an urgent need to increase the pulse productivity to increase the income of farmers and reduce malnutrition. Productivityof pulsesin rainfed agriculture has remainedlowand unstable owing to climate and soil related constraints (Swindale, 1982). Soil moisture is the foremost factor that determines the productivity of rainfed pulses where rainfall is the only source of water. To maintain required soil moisture in rainfed lands, every action must be focused to conserveas much quantity of rainfall in the soil as possible (Rao, 1997). Unfortunately, farmers following rainfed agriculture in our country are not practicing any sort of moisture management techniques though wehaveahandful of techniques suitable for rainfed conditions.

Integrated watershed management programme (IWMP)

The main objectives of the IWMP are to restore the ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and developing degraded natural resources such as soil, vegetative cover and water. The outcomes are prevention of soil run-off, regeneration of natural vegetation, rain water harvesting and recharging of the ground water table. This enables multi-cropping and the introduction of diverse agro-based activities, which help to provide sustainable livelihoods to the people residing in the watershed area. In addition, there is a Scheme of Technology Development, Extension and Training (TDET) is also being implemented to promote development of cost effective and proven technologies to support watershed management.

Till 1.4.2008, Department implemented 3 watershed programmes viz. Integrated Wastelands Development Programme, Drought Prone Areas Programme, Desert Development Programme. Since then, they have been brought under a comprehensive programme named Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) to be implemented under Common Guidelines on Watershed Development, 2008.

5.1 Participatory Approaches to Watershed Management

Community Engagement Strategies: Exploring methods for involving local communities in decision-making processes, project planning, and implementation, including participatory rural appraisal (PRA), stakeholder consultations, and community meetings. Exploring methods for involving local communities in decision-making processes, project planning, and implementation is essential for promoting ownership, sustainability, and effectiveness of development initiatives within watershed areas. Here are key community engagement strategies:

a. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): PRA is a participatory approach that involves community members in assessing their own needs, priorities, resources, and capacities. PRA techniques, such as transect walks, social mapping, seasonal calendars, and wealth ranking, enable communities to identify and analyze local issues, strengths, and opportunities. PRA fosters dialogue, builds trust, and empowers communities to take ownership of development processes.

b. Stakeholder Consultations: Conduct stakeholder consultations to engage a diverse range of actors, including community members, local leaders, government officials, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders. Consultations provide opportunities for stakeholders to share their perspectives, knowledge, and concerns, and contribute to decision-making and project design. Stakeholder consultations ensure inclusivity, transparency, and legitimacy in development processes.

c. Community Meetings: Organize community meetings, village assemblies, or public forums to facilitate dialogue, consensus-building, and decision-making among community members. Community meetings provide platforms for discussing development priorities, reviewing project progress, and resolving conflicts collaboratively. They foster social cohesion, collective action, and community mobilization around shared goals and aspirations.

1.1 Introduction to Integrated Watershed Management

Definition and Scope of Integrated Watershed Management: Integrated Watershed Management (IWM) refers to a comprehensive approach to managing the resources and ecological processes within a watershed area in a coordinated and integrated manner. Integrated watershed management represents a holistic approach to managing natural resources within a watershed, with the aim of achieving sustainable development while maintaining ecosystem health and resilience. It involves collaboration among various stakeholders and integrates scientific knowledge with traditional wisdom to address complex environmental challenges. This section aims to provide a clear understanding of what integrated watershed management entails, including its scope and key components.

a. Definition of Integrated Watershed Management: Integrated Watershed Management is a holistic and multi-disciplinary approach that considers the entire watershed as a unit for planning and managing natural resources. It involves the coordinated management of land, water, vegetation, and other resources within a watershed to achieve sustainable development goals while preserving ecological integrity.

7.1 Importance of Weather Forecast in Agriculture

In India, agriculture is in reality to be a “gamble activity” with the monsoon rain, that means the productivity and profit from agriculture depend upon the goodness of the season. If any malevolent weather situation that happens during a crop season, whether it is at the beginning of the crop season or at the mid of the crop season or at the terminal of the crop season or at the whole of the crop season, the productivity of the crops raised would be under stake. In practice the irrigated crop area is lesser than the area under unirrigated crop in India in any region except the regions where irrigation is routed through perennial rivers. Normally the production from unirrigated crop is 30 to 40 per cent of the same crop grown under irrigated condition in an environment in the same season.

In India, in a region or in a taluk, if the irrigated area is lesser than 30 per cent of total cultivable area, there is every opportunity for the occurrence of food shortage. That means assured production depends upon irrigation rather than managing the crops with seasonal rainfall alone. This clearly indicates that the higher probability of occurrence of crop production risks falls under rainfed/dry land situation. The crop production risk is also common to irrigated area like unirrigated crop but the intensity gets varied. In this context one example that happened in India can be quoted. During December- January of 1982, with the occurrence of heavy rain/snow as a result of prevalence of western disturbance weather system, the wheat crop stood for harvest at Punjab got damaged with a loss of 124 crore of rupees. If this was anticipated earlier through weather forecast development, (which is common in all developed countries) and communicated to the farmers in advance, then the yield loss would have been reduced by following some tactical decisions to be taken either by the farmers or by the concerned Government. At that time, India did not have medium range weather forecast system and hence Indian farmers met with greater losses.

Integrated weed management (IWM) in agricultural crops is a comprehensive approach combining multiple strategies to control weed populations effectively and sustainably. IWM integrates cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical methods to manage weeds in a way that minimizes the reliance on herbicides, reduces the risk of herbicide resistance, and promotes environmental health. Cultural practices include crop rotation, cover cropping, and optimizing planting densities to outcompete weeds. Mechanical methods involve tillage, mowing, and manual removal, while biological control utilizes natural predators and competitive plants. Chemical controls are applied judiciously, targeting specific weed issues with appropriate herbicides. By employing a diversified approach, IWM enhances crop productivity, supports biodiversity, and fosters long-term agricultural sustainability.