eChapters

Introduction

Cultivation of crops in greenhouse or protected structure has been increased tremendously in recent times and also has been spread from temperate regions to the warmer regions of tropics and subtropics. Plentiful technologies have been developed for heating the inside environment of greenhouse for optimum plant growth (Sethi et al. 2013). However, in hot arid areas, cultivation in greenhouse is very difficult as the temperature reaches to a very high level to sustain plant growth (Pek and Hayles 2004, Saran et al. 2010). Under such situation requirement for cooling the greenhouse microclimate environment is the necessity, but is very energy and water intensive. Hence, in such regions, reduction of air temperature inside the greenhouse or the regulation of temperature closer to the ambient temperature during summer is necessary for successful crop production. A typical diurnal variation of temperature and global solar radiation during late winter months inside a shade net structure has been plotted in Fig. 18.1. It has been found that global solar radiation has been decreased to almost 1/3 of the radiation received outside by using 75% shade net cover. The temperature inside structure during morning time has also been found higher than outside temperature and in summer such increase is expected to be much higher.

Therefore, cooling is considered as the basic necessity for greenhouse crop production in tropical and subtropical regions to overcome the problems of high temperatures during summer months. Development of suitable cooling system that provides congenial microclimate for crop growth is a difficult task as the design is closely related to the local environmental conditions. Different cooling techniques for greenhouse crop cultivation may be found in Kumar et al. (2009). Fan pad cooling system has been widely used for greenhouse cultivation however, requires large amount of water during evaporation based cooling. Since water resources are becoming scarce in future such fan-pad cooling system may not be viable in future specifically in hot arid region.

Fracture in animals occur frequently and is a concern of economic importance to the owner. The practice of keeping them as pets in households rather than in sheds or in confinements have increased the chance of encountering accidents like fall from coat, terrace, limbs being trapped in drains, being hit by vehicles, dog bites etc. leading to fracture. Fracture management in small animals/small ruminants can be successfully achieved owing to their light weight; they tolerate external coaptation relatively well and can ambulate in three limbs well in order to spare the injured limb. Fracture can be repaired successfully with regional anaesthetic techniques which they can tolerate very well. The constraint of cost effectiveness can be balanced by carefully selecting the appropriate technique according to the weight and limb involved. Many economical skeletal fixation technique have been evolved which can well fit into the budget of the owner. Knowledge of simple techniques can enhance healing in cases of bone loss and management of infection.

Fracture site stabilization

Fracture repair is usually elective, hence initial support and care of the fracture is necessary to prevent further trauma and complications like communication of fracture site to the exterior through wound or sinus and chances of infection. Initial support to splint the bone not only limits the movements but also supports the soft tissues from untoward consequences. Limb splinting reduces edema and pain, preserves neurovascular supply to the limb till the day of operation and helps to transport the animal safely. Fracture to limbs caudal to mid radius ulna/ tibia can safely be stabilized by splints or full limb casts. Wood, pliable bamboo or split poly vinyl chloride pipes positioned on the caudal and lateral aspects of the limbs and supported firmly with tapes or bandages can serve the purpose. Fracture proximal to mid radius ulna or tibia should not be stabilized using splits since the fulcrum effect created due to this can augment soft tissue injury. Careful assessment of the viability of the structures caudal to fracture site should be assessed prior to a decision regarding surgery, devitalized tissue hamper healing and is a subject to be considered for amputation.

Introduction

Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredient which beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of health-promoting bacteria in the intestinal tract, thus improving the host‘s microbial balance (Gibson and Roberfroid, 1995). Normally, prebiotics contain some type of a non-digestible carbohydrate fraction (Rehman et al., 2009). Almost 90% of oligosaccharides escape digestion in the small intestine and reach the colon where they selectively stimulate the growth and/or activity of beneficial bacteria like Bifidobacteria, Lactobacillus and Streptococcus, providing prebiotic properties (Stanton et al., 2003). These bacteria populate the gut filling any niches were pathogenic bacteria may attempt to take hold. This concept is better known as competitive exclusion. Prebiotics function by lowering the gut pH through lactic acid production, inhibiting/preventing colonization of pathogens, modifying metabolic activity of normal intestinal flora, and stimulation of the immune system (Doyle and Erickson, 2006). Studies have demonstrated that these bacteria reduce pathogenic bacteria like Salmonella spp., Clostridium diffile and Campylobacter spp. (Hopkins and Macfarlane, 2003; Stern et al. 2000), by diverse mechanisms including competitive exclusion of nutrients or adhesion sites to intestinal mucosa (Stern et al. 2000) and fatty acid of short chain production, like propionic and butyric acids, which modifies the acidic conditions and inhibits the growth of microorganisms that cause infections (Collins and Gibson, 1999).

Radionuclides are used in two major ways: for their chemical properties and as sources of radiation.

Radionuclides of familiar elements such as carbon can serve as tracers because they are chemically very similar to the non-radioactive nuclides, so most chemical, biological, and ecological processes treat them in a near identical way. One can then examine the result with a radiation detector, such as a Geiger counter, to determine where the provided atoms ended up. For example, one might culture plants in an environment in which the carbon dioxide contained radioactive carbon; then the parts of the plant that had laid down atmospheric carbon would be radioactive.

In medicine, radioisotopes are used for diagnosis, treatment, and research. Radioactive chemical tracers emitting gamma rays that can provide diagnostic information about a person’s internal anatomy and the functioning of specific organs. This is used in some forms of tomography single emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography scanning. Radioisotopes are also a promising method of treatment in hemopoietic forms of tumors, while the success for treatment of solid tumors has been limited so far. More powerful gamma sources are used to sterilize syringes and other medical equipment. About one in two people in Western countries are likely to experience the benefits of nuclear medicine in their lifetime.

In biochemistry and genetics, radionuclides are used to label molecules and allow tracing chemical and physiological processes occurring in living organisms, such as DNA replication or amino acid transport.

Introduction

After the Second World War, isotopes have become available in sufficient quantities for use in different fields of scientific research. There has been tremendous increase in the number and scope of applications of these new tools and agricultural research is no exception. During the last quarter of a century, the use of isotopes and radiations has become one of the important tools in the solution of practical problems in the area of soil-plant nutritional studies throughout the world. In India, these studies were initiated as early as 1955 with the establishment of the Radiotracer Laboratory at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. The use of these nuclear tools got further fillip in our country with the establishment of the Nuclear Research Laboratory at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi in 1968 as a UNDP Project on Nuclear Research in Agriculture, operated by the Joint FAO/IAEA division of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Also, the agriculture division of Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai and the special radioisotope laboratories established by several agricultural universities had made significant contributions to the use of isotopes and radiations in agricultural research.

Introduction

Genetic markers have assisted in genomic characterization of various crops species (Rafalski and Tingey, 1993). Most of the genetic marker systems rely upon DNA sequence polymorphisms (Staub et al., 1996). Each system has unique advantages and disadvantages based on cost, experimental objectives and type of information desired. Regardless of its inherent methodology, the effective use of any marker system for genetic analysis requires reliability and consistency.

The random amplified polymorphic DNA i.e. RAPD (Williams et al., 1990) or arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction (Welsh and McClelland, 1990) marker identifies DNA sequence polymorphisms. In this technique, segments of genomic DNA are amplified in a polymerase chain reaction i.e. PCR (Mullis et al., 1986) with random primers followed by agarose gel electrophoresis. This is simple, relatively inexpensive and is amenable to high throughput investigation. RAPD markers are usually dominant and polymorphisms are observed as the presence or the absence of DNA bands of a particular size. RAPDs are common molecular approaches employed in plant breeding, genotypic differentiation, gene linkage analysis, assigning evolutionary and taxonomic affinities and relatedness and DNA fingerprinting analysis (Lin et al., 1996).

ABSTRACT

The discovery of polymerase chain reaction method of amplification of DNA is an important milestone in molecular genetics and used for multiple purpose such as construction of linkage maps, marker saturation of specific genome regions, analysis of genetic diversity, molecular phylogeny and cultivar identifications (Williams et al; 1990, Demeke, Adams and Chibbar; 1992, Welsh and Maclelland; 1990;, Obara-Okeyo and Kako; 1998, Sawhoon Lin et al; 1998 and Grunger et al; 1998.). 15 species of three morphologically distinct groups of Orchids belonging to the subfamily Epidendroideae and tribe Dendroebieae and Cymbideae were studied using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique. Genetic variability and relation between these 3 genera and 15 species were estimated based on band sharing and cluster analysis. A total of 227 distinct major RAPD bands of which 97% were polymorphic were generated from 15 arbitrary primers. The number of bands generated per primer ranged from 3 (Primer A-10) to 22 (Primer K-10 and N-17) with a mean of 14.8 bands per primer. Out of 227 bands generated 222 bands (97.8%) where polymorphic while only 5 bands were monomorphic. The primer resolving power was found to range between 2.00 (prime A-10) and 13.38 (primer k-10) when all the species were studied were taken into account. The molecular analysis grouped all the species into 5 groups. The polymorphic patterns generated by RAPD profiles showed different degrees of genetic relationship among the species studied and the RAPD marker were found to be an useful tool for detecting genetic variation within the species of three important genera of Orchids.

Ali Demirci et al., (2014) studied the reactors with biofilms which are used to produce many value added products. These include organic acids, alcohols, enzymes, antibiotics, bacteriocins and many more. Many bioreactor designs favor the biofilm formation in a reactor. The biofilm reactors are utilized for fermentation and bioconversion of large amount of biomass. Recently, the biofilm reactors have been applied for production of many value-added products with novel designs. According to Ercan and Demirci (2015) the biofilms can cause both detrimental and beneficial effects in the environment. Biofilms in bioreactors has many advantages due to the membrane fouling which reduces the cost. Higher biomass density can be utilized and the operation is more stable.Biofilm reactors are commercially being utilized for waste water treatment, bench and pilot-scale production of value-added products. In order to run the biofilm reactor at optimum conditions it is important to understand the fundamentals of biofilm formation, the different properties

1. Introduction

Aquaculture is described as an organized production of crops in an aquatic medium (FAO, 1987). Global aquaculture production has continued to expand at approximately 9% per year since the 1970s, with Asia dominating production levels, particularly for finfish (FAO, 2014). FAO data indicate that global fish production stands at 167 million tons (MT), of which 44% (73.8 MT) is contributed by the aquaculture sector (FAO, 2016). Twelve percent of the world's population depend on the fishing industry for their livelihood as and it provides 17 percent of animal protein. India is second only to China in terms of the world's output of culturable fisheries. According to reports, the aquaculture industry in India has suffered significant losses from the frequent incidence of infectious diseases of bacterial and viral origins, which has hindered sustainable development. To overcome the challenges of developing appropriate technologies for managing water quality in culture systems, developing quick diagnostic tools and ways to contain disease outbreaks, and providing disease-free or highly healthy broodstock and seeds, aquaculture requires creative biotechnological interventions “is the need of the hour” (Subasinghe et al., 2003).

The application of (VCRS) Vapour compressor refrigeration system is in the air conditioners (window, split, central or precision), car air conditioners, domestic refrigerator etc. The different parts of a domestic refrigerator are: in the hermetical sealed compressor, air cooled condenser, capillary tube, thermo expansion device, filter, rotameter, solenoid valve, temperature control sensor.

Abstract

Soil Resource Appraisal helps in characterizing the existing land resources, assessing their suitability for various land uses and then helping the user to prepare a rational land use plan suitable for the integrated development of the area. Application of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) helps not only in the characterization of the resource base, but also in the generation of various thematic maps and preparation of land use and action plans for effective implementation of various developmental plans at farm level.

Keywords : Soil Resource Appraisal, Land Use Plan, Farm level Developmental Plans

1.0 Introduction

A thorough knowledge and understanding of soils is basic to the development and management of agricultural resources. About 100 years ago, man began systematic study of soils in the field and tried to separate, classify and map their geographic distri­bution. Today we have sufficient knowledge about soils; however the characterisation, classification and mapping of soils is still tedious, time consuming and costly affair. Therefore the need for adopting new and more rapid and accurate methods of mapping soils has resulted in the use of satellite images with image interpretation techniques for soil survey and map­ping.

In India for the country as a whole, soil and other land resources information is available at 1:1 M scale, which was generated from the state level mapping done at 1:250,000 scale under the Soil Resources Mapping Project of India during the period from 1986 to 1995. This information is of general nature and useful for planning on a wide canvas and not particularly useful for farm or watershed level planning in the country. For site-specific needs and for developmental works at watershed level, we need detailed farm level database at 1:10,000 scale. Once this type of information is generated at village/watershed level, this will be useful for identifying site specific constraints, generation of area and site specific agro technologies, land-use options based on soil site suitability assessment, wasteland identification, identification of prime farm lands and farm clusters for zoning and Strategic planning, preparation of farm level development plans by line departments and proactive advice and technology transfer to farmers.

ABSTRACT

In Tamilnadu majority of the people are engaged in agricultural work and they mainly depend upon the water resources. But at present both surface and subsurface water has become deficient because of over exploitation. Since last few years, conventional methods were employed to improve the surface and subsurface water conditions. But these methods provide less accurate result and consume more time. So to improve the conditions modern tools, such as remote sensing and GIS are being used to identify the ground water potential zones in Tamilnadu. It provides accurate resulst and consumes less time.

A project was carried out in Gadilam lower sub basin which falls in the part of Cuddalore District, Tamilnadu. The IRS 1D imagery was collected and interpreted using image processing software and Geo media GIS Software in conjunction with collateral data to prepare Hydro geomorphology, land use, geology and lineament maps Field checks were made and transferred the field data on the base map. By application of overlay analysis of the above thematic maps, using GIS techniques, the recharge zones were identified.

The satellite image mosaic map of Gadilam lower sub basin was generated to identify ground water potential zones. Average monthly rainfall data for the past 50 years were collected. Using Remote sensing and GIS techniques, the thematic maps such as Geology, Geomorphology, Soil, Drainage, Land use, Lineament zones have been generated for this study. Geophysical survey was also conducted in various locations and the aquifer parameters were measured. Details related to land and water resources, cropping pattern, water levels and water qualities from PWD ground water division, land use and well censes data of villages from village Administrative Officer, tank details from PWD were collected and analyzed

After analyzing the various thematic maps, they were finally overlaid. Thus the groundwater potential zones of Gadilam lower sub basin was identified.

Abstract
Remote sensing and image analysis have emerged as essential tools in modern agriculture, particularly for plant protection in grain-based legume cropping systems. These technologies are increasingly valuable in addressing challenges such as climate change, pest infestations, and the demand for sustainable practices. Grain legumes, including peas, beans, lentils, and chickpeas, are vital for global food security and soil health due to their protein content and nitrogen-fixing capabilities. However, their productivity is often threatened by pests, diseases, and weeds. Remote sensing allows for early detection of crop stress through analysis of specific wavelengths of light, enabling farmers to identify issues before visible symptoms appear. Tools like the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) provide insights into crop health, allowing for timely and targeted interventions. Hyperspectral and multispectral imaging further enhance disease detection by identifying physiological changes in crops that are not visible to the naked eye. In addition to disease monitoring, remote sensing aids in pest management by detecting changes in plant temperature profiles and utilizing drone surveillance for real-time data collection. Image analysis complements these efforts by offering detailed insights into crop conditions, enabling precision agriculture practices that minimize environmental impact and reduce costs. By integrating remote sensing and image analysis with other technologies like GIS and IoT, farmers can achieve more efficient, sustainable farming practices, ultimately leading to higher yields and better protection for grain legume crops. Keywords: Food security, Remote sensing, GIS, Grain legumes, IoT, Pest management

ABSTRACT

Petroleum exploration is the art of searching hydrocarbon reserves in unknown regions by geological, geophysical and geochemical methods. The selection of effective exploration targets is an important step to achieve success in oil exploration and its selection also dependents on study of basic petroleum geological conditions. Petroleum geologists generally consider basins to be a basic geological unit for petroleum exploration and their main task is to find and determine various sedimentary basins. The remote sensing images have characteristics of really and macroscopic to provide accurate and visualization data for directly determining geometric shapes of sedimentary basins. Remote sensing techniques are more effective in understanding the study of basins in an out-of-the-way about mountains and remote deserts.

Key words: Petroleum Exploration, Sedimentary basin, geology, basin, geometry.

Reproduction is the backbone of animal production and productivity is the key to development. Reproductive inefficiency is one of the most important causes of economic losses in animal industries and it is realized throughout the world. Despite the remarkable advancement that has been made in the field of reproductive physiology in recent years, infertility due to low conception rate and high embryonic mortality rate remains a major problem. To meet future needs and to be able to sustain agricultural production, agricultural research and its applications need to use all emerging technologies one of which is modern reproductive biotechnologies.5 Thus, various assisted-reproductive techniques have been developed and refined to obtain a large number of offspring from genetically superior animals or obtain offspring from infertile (or sub-fertile) animals in addition to disease control. Reproductive biotechnologies intend to be used routinely to shorten generational intervals and to propagate genetic material among breeding animal populations. To achieve this goal, reproductive technologies have been developed in generations over the years, namely artificial insemination (AI), embryo transfer (ET), manipulation of fertilization in vitro (IVF), cloning and transgenesis. These, together with sperm separation techniques, including that of selection of spermatozoa for chromosomal sex (commonly named sex-sorting) all face today a strong wave of increasing commercialization.9 Hence, this review paper highlighted the reproductive biotechnology options and their roles in the improvement of livestock production.
Roles of Reproductive Biotechnology in Animal Production
Biotechnology is defined as a technique that uses living organisms to make or modify and improve products. The emergence and development of reproductive technologies have been driven by the economic gain offered by the potential increase in the number of offspring from genetically superior animals or simply to safeguard the genetic pool of infertile or sub-fertile animals. In other words, reproductive technologies were developed to offer possibilities for wider use of superior germplasm.In recent times, there has been increasing challenges for

4.1 Introduction

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a major food security crop in South Asia, with 42% of the wheat in this region grown following rice (Oryza sativa L.) on 13.5 million hectares of land. Resource-conserving technologies offer considerable potential for improving the sustainability and productivity of wheat in the rice-wheat system of South Asia. These include raising input use efficiency, cutting costs, providing various environmental benefits, and ultimately improving farmer livelihoods and helping to reduce poverty.

History of Social Networking Services

The notion that individual computers linked electronically could form the basis of computer mediated social interaction and networking was suggested early on. There were many early efforts to support social networks via computer-mediated communication, including Usenet, ARPANET, LISTSERV, bulletin board services (BBS) etc.

Early social networking websites included Classmates.com(1995), focusing on ties with former school mates, and SixDegrees.com(1997), focusing on indirect ties. User profiles could be created, messages sent to users held on a “friends list” and other members could be sought out who had similar interests to yours in their profiles. Whilst these features had existed in some form before SixDegrees.com came about, this would be the first time these functions were available in one package. Despite these new developments (that would later catch on and become immensely popular), the website simply wasn’t profitable and eventually shut down. It was even described by the website’s owner as “simply ahead of its time.” Two different models of social networking that came about in 1999 were trust-based, developed by Epinions.com, and friendship-based, such as those developed by Jonathan Bishop and used on some regional UK sites between 1999 and 2001. Innovations included not only showing who is “friends” with whom, but giving users more control over content and connectivity.

Introduction

The development of DNA technology over the last few decades has led to generation of huge amount of data from plant and animal genome. The main sources of markers are mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA), minisatellites, micro satellites and anonymous nuclear sequences assayed using highly specific PCR primers or by using the RAPD technique. A major contribution comes from molecular markers used for analyzing genetic variations. There has been the infusion of computers, softwares and online databases into the daily activities of many molecular geneticists. The identification of abundant, highly variable loci, detectable by a wide variety of techniques has led to a revolution in the way researcher view and analyses levels of variation. We will here discuss about current computer programs in this area to characterize the DNA profiles and data analysis for intra and inter population structure, phylogenetic inference and parentage determination.

ABSTRACT

The present paper describes application of synergistic action of microalgae viz., Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Oscillatoria princeps coupled with state-of-the-art microbial biotechnology (that involved strains of Bacillus subtilis, Nitrobacter winogradskyi, Aspergillus flavus, and A. niger) developed by Biotechnology Resource Centre (BRC), Mumbai for treatment of secondary liquid effluents from a gelatine manufacturing industry. The growth of mixed cultures of selected microbial and algal species was measured respectively in terms of Colony Forming Units (CFUs) and Optical density (O.D.) of the culture. The results were indicative of efficient degradation potential of the proteinaceous liquid effluents. Moreover their BOD and COD loads reduced by 30.75 % and 84.10 % respectively after the treatment. Furthermore, the bio-safety of algal biomass cultured in selected effluents as feed supplement was tested on Swiss albino mice (Mus musculus). Mice in treated group didn’t exhibit any observable adverse effect on their growth or on their reproductive performance. In fine, the liquid effluents of gelatine manufacturing industries were polished along with production of probiotic food supplement.

Need of Analytics in Fisheries Management

New technologies are introduced for industrial vessels every day: Fuel and gear sensors, cameras, electronic catch reports etc. There is a global push to track small-scale fishing vessel. In the coming years, fisheries monitoring centers will have to adjust from tracking a few hundred vessels to tens of thousands of vessels, meaning huge quantity of data. To make sense of all this information, it must be properly analysed. The future of fisheries depends on big-data analytics

This may help in many ways. Fishing trips could be tailored to meet quotas in the shortest time reducing fuel consumption and crew costs. Real-time catch data could help administrations close a fishing zone once quota is reached. Fisheries administrations can monitor catch efforts over an entire region and decide which zones to close, improving management of stocks and fishing licenses. Fighting the challenge of Illegal and Unreported fishing contributing to over-exploitation of fish stocks. Use of disruptive technologies in fisheries and aquaculture like block chains, sensors and automatic identification systems (AIS) has the potential to change the processes profitability and sustainability of the sector

Globally used popular Data Science Software

• MS-EXCEL

• SPSS (IBM)

• STATA • MINITAB

• SAS

• R

• PYTHON

Introduction

Data Analysis is an approach to analyse data sets to summarise their main characteristics and extract valid information. The importance of hypothesis is generally recognised more in the studies which aim to make predictions about some outcome. As it is not possible to work on the whole population, each group is represented only by a sample of observations and if another sample is drawn, the numerical values would change. This variation between different samples drawn from the same population cannot be eliminated or reduced fully. One is supposed to draw inferences in the presence of the sampling f luctuations. Statistical tools and techniques are applied to check whether the observed differences are real significant differences or non- significant ones.

Introduction

A population is the set of all objects we wish to study. A sample is part of the population we study to learn about the population. A census may be defined as an enumeration or evaluation of every member of a population. A parameter is any measurement that describes an entire population. A statistic is any measurement computed from a sample of the individual observations made. As per Best (1977), "Research is considered to be more formal, systematic, and intensive process of carrying on a scientific method of analysis."

 

Introduction

“Quality” of fish refers to the aesthetic appearance and freshness or degree of spoilage which the fish has undergone or involves safety aspects such as being free from harmful bacteria, parasites or chemicals. “Quality’’ is a term which must be defined in association with an individual product type. For example, it is often thought that the best quality fish is the one which is consumed within the first few hours of post mortem. However, very fresh fish which are in rigor mortis will be of hard texture and difficult to fillet and skin are often unsuitable for smoking or drying. Thus, for the processor, a slightly older fish which have passed through the rigor process are more desirable.

In today’s technology driven 21^st century, software has become an integral part of our day to day work. Starting from checking day’s schedule in tablet after waking up in the morning till setting up alarm before going to bed at night, we are using numerous software applications in a day without even realizing the efforts spent to make those applications work perfectly every time we use it. If we look deeply, each software application in computer or in any electronic/computer controlled device go through multiple rigorous cycles of testing to ensure that it is working as intended after it was built by developers and before it was launched in market for public use. In software industry, this process is termed as software quality assurance (QA) or software testing which is being considered as one of the most flourishing verticals of IT software services sectors in 21^st century.

Software testing is one of the most important phases of software development life cycle and it consumes anything between 10% to 45% of project budget depending on the type of the software and methodology followed in the development and testing life cycle. There are different types testing e.g. unit testing, integration testing, system testing, user acceptance testing, alpha, beta testing which are exercised during the testing phase and QA team needs to provide the sign off before any product is released and implemented in production or in consumer market. With the ever increasing complexity of today’s software products along with the competitive market due to easy availability of multiple product options/vendors, the importance and awareness of software quality assurance has increased over years. Consequently, various software testing methodologies have been evolved in last two decades in order to perform testing in more structured and controlled manner. In addition, there is a continuous urge for improving the operational efficiency of the testing process in the organizations in order to produce better quality software at less cost.

Tissue culture is the culture and maintenance of plant cells or organs in sterile, nutritionally and environmentally supportive conditions (in vitro). Conventional breeding methods are the most widely used for crop improvement. But in certain situations these methods have to be supplemented with plant tissue culture techniques, either to increase their efficiency or to achieve an objective not possible through conventional methods.

The art of Indian traditional knowledge regarding herbal medicine has a long history and can be considered as a potential source of new medicine. India has great potential in the market for herbal medicine, which is evident by the fact that medicinal plants required to prepare 50% of the drugs mentioned in the British Pharmacopoeia are reported to be present in the Western Himalayan region alone and India has approximately 8% of the world’s biodiversity, including plant genetic diversity with medicinal properties (Singh, 2006). Traditional medicine is widely used in rural areas, where 70% of the country’s population resides. Almost 75% of the medicinal plants grow naturally in different states of India. These plants are known to cure many ailments in animals.

Ethno Veterinary Practices

Ethno Veterinary Practices, also known as Traditional Veterinary Medicinal Practices are regarded as information gained over a period of time passed on from generation to generation. It is a community based functional knowledge system which has been developed, preserved and refined by generations of people through continuous interaction, observation and experimentation with their surrounding environment. Rural farmers mostly rely on ancestral ethno veterinary practices to deal with the diseases of their livestock and poultry. Veterinarians also show considerable interest in the medicinal plants, employed in traditional systems. This emerging trend in favour of herbal medicine is also due to the issues related to the antimicrobial drug resistance and drug residues in foods (milk/meat/eggs) of animal origin.

SANTOSH P. SARANGAMATH & VIVEK M. PATIL

While System Software like device drivers and utilities enables the application software to interact with the computer hardware, Programming Software like compilers, debuggers and interpreters provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs. However, most common users interact with their computers using Application Software, which enables them to carry out various daily tasks.

Application Software

Application software is programs that work with the operating system software to help the computer to do specific types of work. Applications are the pieces of software that perform tasks for the user besides helping the computer to operate (i.e. the task of system software). Applications range from games, calculators, and word processors (document creation programs). Application software can be easily divided by looking at exactly what function they serve. Listed below are some common types of software which one may encounter while using a computer. Application Software can be categorized into :

1.    Introduction    71
2.    Microorganisms in Food Industry    72
    2.1.    Microorganisms as the agents of fermentation in  
        traditional fermented foods, 73
    2.2.    Microorganisms as the source of food, 83
    2.3.    Microorganisms as a source of food supplements, 86

3.    Microorganisms in Pharmaceutical Industry    92

    3.1.    Antimicrobial agents from microorganisms, 92
    3.2.     Microorganisms as probiotics, 97
    3.3.    Microbial enzymes in  pharmaceuticals, 98
    3.4.    Mushroom nutriceuticals, 98

Greenhouses have become an essential part of modern agriculture as they offer controlled environments for plant growth, research, and horticultural practices. This chapter discusses the various applications of greenhouses, which include extending growing seasons, improving crop yields, supporting botanical research, and producing ornamental plants. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of repair and maintenance in greenhouse operations. Understanding the repair and maintenance protocols is crucial to ensure the sustained functionality of heating systems, water management, and structural components.

7.1 General

Science and technology have been advancing rapidly, but unfortunately, their impact has been largely negative. Pollution is not the only issue we face today, but also the depletion of fossil fuels, climate change, and excessive land degradation. The persistent presence of heavy metals in soil poses a significant threat to our planet. Many efforts have been made to remediate soils contaminated with toxic chemicals.

There are several issues that need urgent attention at the moment, and a solution is necessary to tackle them all at once. Biochar is a great option because of its numerous benefits, such as a large surface area, high porosity, high carbon sequestration rate, excess nutrients, and potential to produce syngas and bio oil. By using biochar, we can reduce the bioavailability of pollutants in soil, combat climate change by sequestering carbon, and reduce the use of fossil fuels by producing syngas and bio-oil. Additionally, biochar improves soil health, which can contribute to food security.

1. Introduction

2. Human Genome Project

3. Development of Bioinformatics

3.1. Indian scenario

4. Plant Genome Model

5. Components of Plant Genome Database

5.1. Stock centre databases

5.2. Genome mapping database

5.3. DNA sequences

6. Agricultural Research Service and National Research Initiative

6.1. Objectives of plant genome programme

6.2. GIBN Trans – pacific digital library experiment plant genome databases

7. Plant Genome Databases

7.1. Vegetable genome databases

7.1.1 Mendel-Plant Gene Nomenclature Database

7.2. Others

7.2.1. Bean Genes – Phaseolus / Vigna sp. Database

7.2.2. Solgenes Database

7.2.3. Soybase

7.3. Other data bases

7.3.1. PGDB (Pathway genome data base)

7.3.2. Demeter’s genome

8. Tools of Bioinformatics

9. New Directions in Genome Database at Stanford

10. Navigating the World Wide Web

11. Virtual Genome Centre (VGC)

11.1. Programmes at the VGC

12. Impact of Gene Chips and Micro Arrays

13. Applications and Impacts

14. Bottlenecks

15. Future Thrust

Term Biotechnology was first coined in 1919 by Karl Ereky which means products are produced from raw materials with the aid of living organisms.

Bio means life.

Technology means application of knowledge for practical use.

Computer played a distinctive role in the growth of most advanced, precise and highly sensitive instruments especially in medical and analytical instrumentation technology. Due to the development of different kinds of software the instrumentation analysis has become easy, rapid and result oriented. Auto sampling, development of new methods for detection analysis and the validity of new developed method have been possible with no trouble. Once the standardization of method is over and saved, it can be applied at any time to integrate the unknown samples and their data calculation. Thus, it avoids repetition in calculation and the end result is time saving technique due to the development of computer-organized system in analysis.

The results produced are more reliable and reproducible through various computer based instruments e.g. scanning machines, blood analyzer, gas chromatography (GC), amino acid analyzer (AAA), atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) etc.

HPLC is a technology or a system that works on the basis of software. There have been many definitions of computer shielded HPLC, such as high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), high-speed liquid chromatography (HSLC), high efficiency liquid chromatography (HELC), and simply liquid chromatography (LC).

In agriculture, sensors can monitor soil, water, vegetation, and environmental conditions. They assist farmers in enhancing crop quality, optimizing water usage, and making informed fertilizer choices.
CROP MONITORING
The primary function of remote sensing in agriculture is to assess crop health. Optical (VIR) sensing enables the observation of wavelengths beyond the visible spectrum, such as infrared; these wavelengths are highly responsive to crop vitality, damage, and stress. Recent advancements in this technology have enabled farmers to monitor their fields and execute prompt crop management decisions. Remote sensing for crop identification facilitates the detection of crops impacted by weather-related circumstances, pests, and other factors.
Pest Detection
Drones can administer insecticides and herbicides with greater precision, reducing chemical consumption and environmental repercussions. Drones can minimize chemical application by targeting specific regions impacted by pests or weeds, thereby safeguarding beneficial insects and mitigating the danger of pesticide resistance. Drones can also be utilized to deploy biological control agents, including beneficial insects or fungi, to address pest issues in an environmentally sustainable way.
Irrigation Management
A primary application of UAV technology in smart agriculture is crop irrigation management, which enhances water consumption efficiency by delivering the precise quantity of water at the most suitable location and time. UAVs equipped with suitable sensors can identify regions of a crop that necessitate supplementary irrigation. This positively impacts overall crop productivity. The

Introduction
Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most widely cultivated cereal crops globally and holds significant economic and food security value across diverse agroclimatic regions. In India, its multifaceted utility as food, feed, and industrial raw material underscores its relevance in national agriculture. With the expansion of hybrid cultivation, climate-resilient breeding, and commercial seed markets, the need for precise and dependable varietal identification has become increasingly critical. Traditional methods of cultivar identification, which relied primarily on morphological characteristics evaluated under the Distinctness, Uniformity, and Stability (DUS) framework, have shown considerable limitations due to their environmental dependence, subjectivity, and limited resolution among closely related genotypes (Verma et al., 2023; Jamil et al., 2021). Morphological traits, although historically pivotal in classification, are often confounded by genotype-environment interactions, multigenic inheritance, and developmental plasticity. Consequently, accurate varietal authentication using such traits becomes impractical, particularly in crops like maize where morphological similarity among hybrids is frequent (Poets et al., 2020; Verma et al., 2023). This challenge has driven the development and adoption of molecular techniques such as DNA fingerprinting, which offers a robust, reproducible, and environmentindependent alternative for cultivar and germplasm identification (Jamil et al., 2021).
DNA fingerprinting involves the use of specific DNA markers to distinguish and characterize plant genotypes based on their genetic makeup. The concept, introduced by Paul Hebert in 2003, was originally proposed as a supplement to morphological taxonomy and has since evolved into a cornerstone of modern plant breeding and germplasm management. This technique has been instrumental in multiple domains of crop improvement, including genetic diversity analysis, heterotic grouping, marker-assisted selection, and varietal purity testing. Moreover, in the context of intellectual property rights and seed certification, DNA-based identification plays a vital role in enforcing breeder rights and ensuring seed quality in both public and private breeding sectors (Poets et al., 2020). Its utility is further underscored by its ability to detect essentially derived varieties (EDVs), resolve disputes in seed authenticity, and support biodiversity conservation efforts through accurate germplasm cataloging (Jamil et al., 2021; Verma et al., 2023).
Given these wide-ranging applications and advantages, the present chapter aims to comprehensively assess the evolution and current status of DNA fingerprinting technologies, with specific emphasis on their application in maize variety and germplasm identification.

Drones have transformed agricultural operations, especially in crop monitoring, by providing farmers with an efficient and economical method to collect real-time data on their crops. Drones, outfitted with sophisticated sensors, cameras, and imaging technology, can obtain intricate aerial perspectives of extensive agricultural landscapes. This enables farmers to oversee crop health, identify early indicators of diseases, pests, and nutrient deficits, and evaluate water levels or irrigation requirements. Drones offer essential insights for precision agriculture, enabling farmers to make informed decisions that enhance output, minimize resource use, and improve overall crop management. Drones’ capacity to swiftly and precisely cover extensive regions has rendered them an essential instrument in contemporary agriculture.
UNDERSTANDING DRONE CROP MONITORING
Crop monitoring using drones is the deployment of drones fitted with specialized sensors and imaging systems to collect data regarding crops and their environment. The data undergoes processing and analysis, yielding outcomes that offer farmers practical insights to enhance crop output, decrease input costs, and mitigate environmental effect. The goal is to employ technology to enhance understanding of crop performance, so enabling more informed management decisions.
The procedure for drone crop monitoring generally encompasses the subsequent steps:

Farm tractor designs and styles differ greatly. Tractors are often used on a daily basis for several agricultural and non-agricultural tasks by attaching or operating light, medium to heavy implements, equipment and machineries according to the requirement and hp of tractors. Tractors are very versatile and can be used on sandy (light textured), loamy (medium textured) and clayey (heavy textured) soil at different topographic and agro-climatic conditions. Earlier, the proportion of tractor usage in agricultural and non-agricultural work was 70:30. This proportion has increased to about 55: 45 over the past two to three years. It is expected to reach 50:50 in (agricultural:non-agricultural applications) in the coming years. The major application of farm tractors for agricultural and non-agricultural sectors is given below.

Proper selection of a fungicide and its application at the correct dose and the proper time are highly essential for the management of plant diseases. The basic requirement of an application method is that it delivers the fungicide to the site where the active compound will prevent the fungus damaging the plant. The fungicidal application varies according to the nature of the host part diseased and nature of survival and spread of the pathogen. The method which are commonly adopted in the application of the fungicides are discussed

Introduction

The role of knowledge management as the key source for competitive advantage in our organizations has become a hotly debated topic. Indeed, it is a core competency for creating competitive advantage. In this environment that knowledge management is vital, therefore, at first we should determine knowledge management situation, and then to achieve a desired point, formulate a knowledge management strategy.

ABSTRACT

The present paper highlights the implication of geochemical strategic tools to choose suitable site selection on the coastal region. Geochemical tools and geomorphological survey have been also deployed to identify the suitable site. The geomorphology of the site A reveals enough fresh water accumulation was found and the two elevated crest and the adjacent trough (low land) with surrounding areas further support the fact. The water quality of this site exposes very good quality (< 200ppm TDS) and the dissolved major anions (HCO3, SO4, Cl) and cations (Ca, Mg, Na, K) concentration are well within drinking water standards. The soil samples are of medium to coarse sand nature showing high porosity (40 to 50%) with mica flakes acting as less permeable in nature. The water quality shows very good in nature and similar to Site A. The soil characters additionally proved good in porosity and permeability (SAR 1.5 to 2.1).

2.1 INTRODUCTION

GIS is a tool that can be used in varied disciplines ranging from civil engineering to business. Remote sensing data is often brought into GIS to have a complete data set in many natural resource application areas. Full capability of GIS is not used widely. Many a times people use GIS only for digitising maps and to do simple query on maps. But it can also be used in modeling, simulation and forecasting, only then one may regard GIS technology is utilised to its full potential. Some GIS softwares handle simple problems for location based services while other complex softwares posses advanced modules to do all types of spatial, network and 3D analysis. Integration of softwares used in natural resources study are being interfaced with GIS to create scenarios.

Remote sensing and GIS technology is useful in the following fields:

Water is a primary source of life and sustains all human activities such as domestic needs, agriculture, industries etc. The allocation and management of water resources is becoming a difficult task due to increasing demands, decreasing supply and diminishing quality. This calls for judicious use of water resources. The geomorphology describes the environment in which the hydrological processes operate. A strong mutual correlation exists between geomorphological variables and hydrological characteristics. Such relationship can be applied to both surface and groundwater regime. Thus the linking of geomorphological parameters with hydrological characteristics of the basin provides a simple way to understand the hydrogeomorphological behaviour of different basins and particularly of un-gauged basins.

During the last few years various applications of hydrogeomorphology with reference to the Geographic Information System (GIS) and various other techniques have emerged as an extensively effective tool for analyzing and prioritizing natural resource management alternatives. Because natural resource management problems are spatial in nature the GIS technology provides a tool for defining the extent of the problem, and facilitates the design and implementation of alternative management strategies. The GIS is used to estimate the hydrogeomorphological parameters of the watershed, which can be used in watershed planning and management at micro and macro levels. The results of the study can be utilized to infer the hydrological features like runoff potential, infiltration and groundwater recharge of the region. Some of the applications of hydrogeomorphological studies are described below:

Starch is the most abundant polysaccharide carbohydrate reserve which is available in different parts of plants such as roots, stem, leaves, seeds, flowers, and fruits. It is considered an excellent source of energy and plants utilizes carbon from it for their metabolic activities (Smith, 2001). It is composed of glucose units linked together by glycosidic bonds to form amylose and amylopectin polymeric chains (Abbas et al., 2010).

The term nanoscience defines controlling or modifying the shapes and sizes of the materials such that they lie in the range of a nanometre (1 nm = 10^-9 m) scale, typically 1-100 nm (Chavada et al., 2016). The application of these materials and systems by their suitable designing and production is what is known as nanotechnology. Richard Feynman, in 1959, first discussed the possibility of this advanced technology. However, the term was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974 (Chavada et al., 2016).

Introduction

Nanoparticles are minute particles with at least one dimension that measures less than 100 nanometers. They have been extensively studied in various f ields including medicine, biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, and environmental science. Nanoparticles have several unique properties, such as a high surface area to volume ratio, enhanced reactivity, and optical, electrical, and magnetic properties that differ from the bulk material. These properties make nanoparticles suitable for a variety of biomedical applications, including diagnosis, imaging, drug delivery, and therapy. This chapter will discuss the current and potential applications of nanoparticles in healthcare and research.

Introduction to Nanotechnology in Agriculture
Nanotechnology, the science of manipulating materials at the atomic and molecular scale, typically between 1 and 100 nanometers is revolutionizing various industries, including agriculture. Its unique ability to control matter at such a small scale offers unprecedented opportunities to enhance agricultural productivity, sustainability and efficiency. This introduction provides a comprehensive overview of the role of nanotechnology in agriculture, highlighting its potential applications, benefits and future prospects.
Understanding Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology involves the design, production, and application of materials and devices by controlling shape and size at the nanometer scale. At this scale, materials exhibit unique physical, chemical and biological properties that differ significantly from their bulk counterparts. These properties include increased surface area, enhanced reactivity and unique optical and electrical behaviors, making nanomaterials highly versatile and effective for various applications.

The main objective of nanomedicine broadly defined as the comprehensive monitoring, repairing and improvement of all human biological systems, working from the molecular level using engineered devices and nanostructures to achieve medical benefit. Nanomedicine is the nanomachine of diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease and traumatic injury, relieving pain, and of preserving and improving human health, using molecular tools and molecular knowledge of the human body. Nanotechnology applications in medical science can be essential in achieving this goal. These applications involves extensive surveillance, control, creation, repair, and defence of all biological human systems, employing designed nanodevices and nanostructures which works in molecular level.

Mulching

The technique of covering the soil with plastic films or natural crop left over (residues) for soil and water conservations is called mulching.

This technique was practiced by farmers using dry leaves straw, trash, stones etc to conserve water. Presently plastic film have come into use for the purpose of mulching due to inherent advantages.

Within a few weeks after November 8, 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen made the discovery of X-rays, they were being used in medicine and many sophisticated medical applications. This single discovery of X-rays revolutionized the entire medical field and developed into a separate discipline in the diagnostic and therapeutic applications in human beings and animals. On 10 December, 1901, Roentgen received the first Nobel Prize for Physics in recognition for discovery of X-rays. Radiography in veterinary practice may not always be used to arrive at a final diagnosis of the disorders. In the last few years, various types of X-ray scanners have been developed that allow highly detailed views of a particular section of the body. One type, known as a computerized tomography (CT) scanner, sends narrow beams of X- rays at various angles through a patient’s body. The information obtained from the X-rays is processed by a computer to produce an image of a cross-section of the body. The image shows much more detail than an ordinary X-ray picture. A section of the body can be studied in three dimensions by producing a series of adjacent cross-sectional images. Nevertheless, radiography remains a valuable modality in diagnostic purposes and has significantly extended the usefulness in medicine and research.

Abstract

Remote sensing is the art and science of obtaining information about an object or phenomenon without having any contact with the object concerned. Geographical information system is a tool to create, manage, retrieve and query spatial databases. Remote sensing in conjunction with Geographical Information System (GIS) has wide applications in all spheres of life and especially in agriculture. Specifically, this paper reveals some of the applications of remote sensing and GIS in the field of crop condition assessment viz., crop type classification, crop stress detection, crop yield estimation and pest and disease monitoring.

Keywords : Remote Sensing, GIS, Yield Forecasting, Crop Stress, Pest and Disease Monitoring

1.0 Introduction

Remote sensing is the art and science of obtaining information about an object or phenomenon without there being any physical contact. The information is so collected using a device called a sensor. The sensors are mounted on a platform at an advantageous position. Accordingly the remote sensing is called ground based (sensor is hand held or mounted on mast), air borne (sensor is on a balloon or aero plane) or space borne (sensor is mounted on a satellite). The basic principle in remote sensing is that each and every object has unique reflecting property like human thumb impression and when the solar energy is falling on an object a part of it gets reflected, which carries the information about the object. The reflected light is converted in to reflection percentage of incoming solar radiation. This percentage of reflection can be used to work out the vegetation indices which are surrogate measure of crop condition.

Geographical Information System (GIS) is software system which enable Collection of large volume of data with spatial relation Integration of data from different source is possible Analyze such data for our requirement Present the data in different formats (maps, table and reports)