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Microbiology is the study of microorganisms or microbes. They are very small in size and hence cannot be seen with naked eyes. Microorganisms are excellent models for understanding cell function in higher organisms, including humans. Hence the science of microbiology is the foundation of all the biological sciences and microorganisms consist of bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and viruses. The fields according to the organisms studied are henceforth termed as:
Bacteriology - Bacteria (singular: bacterium)
Phycology (phyco, seaweed) - Algae (singular: alga)
Mycology (myco, a fungus) - Fungi (singular: fungus)
Protozoology (proto, first; zoo, animal) - Protozoa (singular: protozoan)
Virology - Viruses
Microbiology began when people learned to make lenses from glass and combine them to produce magnifications great enough to see microbes. The importance of bacteria in the lives of people, animals and the environment has been unfolded in the past 100 years. It was also believed that the incidence of the disease was due to divine reasons since man had no idea of microbes at this point of time. In the earlier days, leprosy was considered as a dangerous infectious disease and spread of the disease was attributed to direct contact with the affected persons. Hence, certain procedures were specified for
segregation of the affected persons. At this point of time various theories were also attributed to the genesis of disease. Some of the important theories are as follows:
1. Theurgical theory – Disease was attributed to the wrath of divine spirits as a punishment of individual sins.
2. Miasmatic theory – This theory was proposed by Hippocrates and further developed by his student Galen. It states that the disease was dueto the emanations from the

Microbiology is the branch of science which deals with the diverse minute forms of life such as bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, prions, protozoa and algae. The study includes structure, classification, growth and nutrition, natural habitat, genome, antigenic characteristics, virulence determinants, types of toxins produced, pathogenesis, diagnosis and ways to combat the infection caused by the microbes.

The term Rainfed agriculture is used to describe farming practices that rely on rainfall for water. It provides much of the food consumed by poor communities in developing countries. In India, about 52% of total net sown area comes under rainfed lands. Rainfed crops account for 48 per cent area under food crops and 68 per cent under non-food crops. India ranks first among the rainfed agricultural countries of the world in terms of both extent and value of produce. Due to population pressure on agricultural lands, the poverty is concentrated in rainfed regions. The climate in India’s rainfed regions is characterized by complex climatic deficiencies, manifested as water scarcity for rainfed crop production. The climate is largely semi-arid and dry sub-humid with a short (occasionally intense) wet season followed by long dry season. Rainfall is highly unreliable, both in time and space, with strong risks of dry spells at critical growth stages even during good rainfall years. The fluctuations are due to numerous factors affecting the monsoonal climate including the atmospheric circulation and strong links to El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean.

Rainfed areas in India are highly diverse, ranging from resource rich areas to resource-constrained areas. Some of the resource rich areas are highly productive and have experienced widespread adoption of technology. However, most of the areas are resource constrained and dry areas. In the resource constrained and dry areas, the farming is a survival mechanism rather than a growth oriented activity. Rainfed agriculture is practiced under a wide variety of soil type, agro-climatic and rainfall conditions ranging from 400 mm to 1600 mm per annum. Rainfed Crops are prone to breaks in the monsoon during the crop growth due to water stress. This water stress may be due to variability of rainfall, delay in sowing, diversity in crop management practice and variability of the soil type. The prolonged breaks can result in partial or complete failure of the crops.

IDENTIFICATION OF BODY PARTS

Objectives

To become familiar with external parts of the body

Physical examination

Administration of medicine or substances
Oral administration : can be done with the help of syringes or stomach Tube. In large animals, mouth gag is used before passing stomach tube.

Plants make up the majority of the earth’s living environment as trees, grass, flowers, etc. Plants are the only higher organisms that can convert the energy of sunlight into stored, usable chemical energy in carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Directly or indirectly, plants make up all the food on which humans and all animals depend. Plants however also gets sick, grow and exhibit various types of symptoms and sometimes whole plant die. It is not known whether diseased plant feel pain or discomfort. If a plant is looking different from its community then it is equal to be disease one. Any biotic or abiotic agents which induce the disease in plant is referred as the cause of diseases.The causative agents of disease in plants are pathogenic such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, protozoa and nematodes and environmental conditions such as lack or excess of nutrients, moisture, light, etc to presence of toxic chemicals in air or soil. These biotic constraints can, at times, seriously compromise food security, For example, potato late blight, caused by Phytophthora infestans, struck Europe like ‘a bolt from the blue’ in the 1840s. In Ireland, about a million people died of starvation and more than a million attempted to emigrate. The reasons for this calamity were the arrival in Europe of a virulent strain of the pathogen, the high dependence of much of the Irish population on potato for sustenance, the lack of resistance in the plant to the pathogen, and weather conditions favorable to epidemic development. There have been other disasters caused by plant diseases such as the Great Bengal Famine of 1943 and the southern corn blight epidemic of 1970-71 in the USA, to name but two. In the former, an estimated 2 million people died owing to the high dependence of most of the population on a single crop, rice, which was attacked by the fungus Cochliobolus miyabeanus. In the USA, by contrast, although in some genus, Cochlobolus heterostrophus, alternative sources of nutrition were plentiful so no one died, although the effect on the agricultural economy was severe.

The first two of these heartbreaking examples demonstrate with brutal clarity that in areas of the world where a large proportion of the population is dependent on a single crop or a few crops, they are at risk should that crop fail owing to one or more devastating diseases. At the present time, the threat is partially great in developing countries, where populations are growing fastest, poverty is endemic , the population depends upon on locally produced staples, and the infrastructure of extension and R&D is often poorly resourced. The losses due to weeds, disease and insects have been estimated to around 40% in the developing and underdeveloped countries. If the post harvest losses (15-20%) are also added , the situation becomes even more alarming.

Although after independence, the use of hybrid and composite seeds of various crops, especially of rice and wheat resulted in an increase in the Indian agricultural output leading to “Green Revolution”. This Green Revolution came to fore during the late “Nineteen Hundred and Sixty”. In fact, during the era of “Green Revolution”, introduction of high yielding varieties of rice and wheat crops were grown which responded to more use of fertilizers, pesticides as well as water.

There is no doubt that “Green Revolution” made the country-India, self- sufficient in food grains production, particularly of rice and wheat. As a matter of fact, the “Green Revolution” created a buffer stock at times exceeding to 60 million tonnes, which made the nation or the country very proud (Mahajan and Gupta, 2009). However, continuous use of chemical fertilizers as well as inorganic pesticides and totally neglect of organic manures and botanical pesticides prepared from various plant species like Neem (Azadirachta indica) and Drek (Melia azedarach) for controlling of insects came totally to stand still. So very soon, the deleterious or ill effects of the “Green Revolution” the so called the chemical-based farming or “Industrial agriculture,” came to fore, which briefly stand discussed below

• Fruit research in India was started in the department of Botany in six-agriculture College in 1905.
• A pomological station was established at Coonoor, Ooty in 1920 to study the adaptability of temperate fruit varieties.
• Four Regional Research Station in - 1933

Subtropical location at

• Sabour, Bihar
• Koduru, Madras
• Krishnanagar, Bengal
• Temperate Region at Chaubatia, Uttarakhand
• The research was also initiated in 1945 in Jammu and Kashmir by the Survey of deciduous fruits
• In 1950, Horticulture Research Station was established at Kandaghat and Kullu

Introduction and Scope of Veterinary Pathology

• The aim of study of veterinary and animal sciences is to produce a competent veterinarians. The veterinarians are involved in the diagnosis of diseases of livestock, poultry, wild animals and captive animal species. The study of diseases is essential component of pathology.

• Pathology (Gr. Path(o) - Disease; logos: science, treatise, sum of knowledge in a particular subject) • Pathology is the subject linking basic subjects of anatomy, histology, embryology, physiology and biochemistry to clinical subjects of medicine, surgery and obstetrics and gynaecology.

• Pathology is a subject of terminology.

• It is important to familiarize with different terminologies used in describing events/ disease conditions. The definition of each terminology is the gateway to understanding the particular disease process.

Introduction to Swine Farming

World pig population in the year 2007 was 918,278,000 when the pig population in India was 14,000,000. The per head agricultural land holding is decreasing continuously because of a high rate of increase in population leading to excessive pressure on land. This lower land holding per person leads to lowered production per person forcing people to move to urban areas for better incomes. Excessive population pressure on urban areas itselves has its own demerits and limitations. To prevent this drift of village people to the urban areas they should be encouraged to adopt agriculture based professions which give the villagers a good return in short time span. Swine industry provides the same opportunities to villagers who can get better income with a minimal investment in short time intervals. In India for varied reasons the swine industry is not much developed. The breeds yield less and also the littre size is small in comparision to the better breeds available in many parts of world. In India, the desi swine survives on garbage and looks very unhygienic. Thus, most of the people in India feel uncomfortable to consume swine. Indian swine industry has a great potential but needs attention with respect to raising of better productive breeds with lesser cost for hygienic feeding and management.

            Pig is mainly reared for meat, skin and manure. Growing pigs for meat is little different from other production processes because here the daily live weight gain relates to the daily feed supply and the efficiency of output production depends upon the total quantity of input (feed).

Location

Bundelkhand is a geographical and cultural region and also a mountain range in central & North India. The hilly region is now divided between the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh with the larger portion lying in the latter state. Bundelkhand region is situated between Vindhya range in south and Indo-Gangetic plain in north and lies between 23º10’ and 26º27’ N Latitude and 78º4’ and 81º34’ E Longitude, covering an area of 70,747 sq km. It spread over two states viz. Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh and comprises of 14 districts. It is spreading over of seven districts of Uttar Pradesh viz. Jhansi, Lalitpur, Jalaun, Hamirpur, Mahoba, Banda and Chitrakoot and similarly seven districts of Madhya Pradesh viz. Sagar, Panna, Tikamgarh, Chhatarpur, Damoh, Datia and recently formulated Niwari district (Fig. 1). The language spoken in Bundelkhand is Bundelkhandi and Hindi. The total population of Bundelkhand as 2011 census is 1,83,35,044.

2.1 Introduction in Plant Breeding

A. Define/Explain the followings

1. Plant breeding: Plant breeding is defined as the art, science and technology of improving the genetic make-up of crop plants in relation to their economic use for mankind.

Introduction
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the most important tuberous, starchy and versatile food crop belongs to family Solanaceae. In India potato is grown in an area of 2.07 Mha with a production of 48 MT and a productivity of 23.19 MT/ha. The potato producing major states in India are Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Karnataka. In Karnataka, the crop is grown in an area of 44,160 ha with an annual production of 5,89,120 MT and productivity of 13.34 t/ha (Anonymous, 2014). Further in Karnataka Potato is mainly grown in Hassan, Belgaum, Dharwad, Chikkaballapur and Kolar districts. Hassan district alone contributes more than 41 per cent of potato production in the state (Bhajantri 2011). Basically potato prefers relatively low temperature during early growth and cool weather during tuber development. It requires 25°C temperature at the time of sprouting, 20°C for vegetative growth and 17 to 20°C for tuber development. ARC saplings are mainly used for seed tuber production at a quicker rate. Farmers can produce zero generation seed tubers from ARC saplings without any shipping costs involved. In this regard KVK, Hassan after knowing the existence of innovative ARC sapling technology from the International Center for Potato (CIP), German innovation center (GIZ/GIC) Bengaluru, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kandali, Hassan procured tissue culture bottles/mother culture from CPRI, Shimla Himachala Pradesh through CIP, GIZ/GIC Bengaluru. By using the mother culture KVK Hassan has produced approximately two lakhs ARC saplings with existing facility and conducted the field evaluation studies on “Performance and evaluation of Apical Rooted Potato saplings in Hassan district”.
About the Technologies Addressed
The ICAR-KVK, Hassan has introduced two technologies in potato during last decade to improve the yield and to reduce the cost of production, namely, Apical Rooted Cuttings (ARC) for quality seed tuber production and Mechanization in Potato to reduce the labour requirement and drudgery. The ARC is a technology where small portion of disease free mother tuber is collected and multiplied under aseptic conditions (Tissue culture) in a growing media to produce new and healthy plantlets. These plantlets are used as mother

Practical have a significant role in the study of any theoretical subject. Whatever a student learns in theory, he verifies it by actual doing with his own hands.  Thus, these reduce any doubts and misbelieve from his mind. These verifications by actually doing the things are performed in the laboratories.  A laboratory is a place with the basic and essential equipments and adequate facilities for students and teachers to perform and observe experiments.  Plants will continue to provide novel products as well as chemical models for new drugs in the coming centuries.  The arrival of chemical analysis and the characterization of molecular structures have helped in precisely identifying these plants and correlating them with their activity under controlled experimentation.

Introduction
An organism can be highly destructive in one habitat while coexisting peacefully in another. It is exceedingly challenging to forecast the impact of a new species on the local flora and fauna when it is brought into an ecosystem where it has never before lived naturally. In competition for resources and space, the imported species can surpass the native fauna. A delicate web of interdependence that gradually shaped over thousands of years is harmed when introduced species compete more successfully for resources because they have no predators in the area. In certain cases, they even kill and eat native populations (Raman et al., 2013). Fish species classified as non-native are those that have been intentionally introduced outside of their natural range (for example, to support aquaculture, improve a reservoir or recreational fishery, through the ornamental fish trade, or to control mosquitoes), accidentally introduced (for example, through bait releases, aquaculture escapes, or ballast water transport (Gupta and Everard, 2019), or introduced in the name of wellmeaning but misguided religious practices (Everard et al., 2019). Due to their higher birth rate, the tendency to feed on local fish species, increased growth rate, larger size, longer life spans, or competition for comparable food supplies and habitat, these species may negatively impact native fish species (Ricciardi and Rsmussen, 1998).
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classifies alien invasive species as those that spread quickly through natural or semi-natural ecosystems or habitats, act as change agents, and endanger the biological diversity of the host species. These invasive are widely dispersed across the world's ecosystems, including every class of living thing (Raghubanshi et al., 2005). Fish native to the area compete with exotics for food and habitat. The quality of the aquatic ecosystems may deteriorate, new illnesses and parasites may be introduced, hybrids may be produced, native fish may be killed, and genetic "pollution" may occur. All of these will eventually cause the priceless biodiversity to disappear (Nyman, 1991). The socioeconomic facets of the human population that depend on aquatic environments for survival are also at danger, in addition to possible consequences on the quantity or quality of biodiversity (Philipp et al., 1995). The most varied group of vertebrates is fish, and freshwater fish in particular are thought to be among the most critically threatened animal species due to the introduction of alien (or non-native) species, which are species that do not typically occur in an aquatic environment (CONABIO, 2008). According to Contreras-Balderas (1999), these species hurt local populations when they are introduced and harm ecosystems by causing the water body to deteriorate. Maclvor brought the first group of exotic fish in 1874, namely crucian carp

Agricultural mechanization involves the design, manufacture, distribution, use and servicing of all types of agricultural tools, equipment and machines. It includes three main power sources: human, animal and mechanical with special emphasis on mechanical (tractive power).

Mechanization has been identified as one of the critical inputs for production agriculture. It may be described as an appropriate package of technology to i) ensure timely field operations to increase productivity, reduce crop losses and improve product quality, ii) increase land utilization and input use efficiency and iii) increase labour productivity through labour saving and drudgery reducing mechanical devices. The mechanization of Indian agriculture has proceeded along two-pronged approach based on improved equipment and enhanced power supply. However, compared to the mechanization of western agriculture which was motivated by the need to substitute human labour and draught animals with mechanical prime movers, the guiding principle in mechanizing Indian agriculture has been to maintain a socially desirable mix of human labour, draught animal power and mechanical power.

Introduction
Liposomes are bubble-like structures made up of (phospho)lipids that form on their own and surround an area of water in the middle with two or more overlapping layers of lipids. Liposomes are between 30 and micrometers in size and are made up of two phospholipid layers that are 4-5 nm thick. British scientists Alec Bangham and his colleagues at Babraham Cambridge were the first to describe the structure of liposomes in 1964 (Kozubek et al., 2000; Samad et al., 2007). This was in the middle of the 1960s and was a big step forward for the field of liposomology. Following this, liposomes have been studied in great detail because they can carry imaging agents, proteins, nucleic acids, and small chemicals. Many ways of giving medicine have been created to make treatment more effective and help patients stick with it. These include parenteral, pulmonary, oral, transdermal, ophthalmic, and nasal methods. In addition, liposomes are used a lot in the food and beauty industries (Maurer et al., 2001). Liposomes are very good at delivering drugs because they keep the parts inside from breaking down naturally, increase the half-life of the drug, manage the release of drug molecules, and are very safe and compatible with living things. Liposomes can improve therapeutic benefits by passively or actively targeting to deliver their payload to the affected area. This raises the maximum dose that can be tolerated, lowers the risk of systemic side effects, and improves treatment results. When compared to normal tissue, which has strong links between endothelial cells, abnormal tissues like solid tumors or inflammatory sites have more permeable capillaries (Szoka, 2019; Allen and Cullis, 2013; Fielding, 1991).
The enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect is when liposomes can quietly gather and stay in damaged tissues by passing through the broken neovasculature. When the liposome interacts with certain molecules and receptors on the surface of tumor cells, this is called active targeting (Saraf et al., 2020). Some receptors, like folic acid, integrin, CD44, CD13, prostate-specific membrane antigen, vascular endothelial growth factor, and epidermal growth factor, may be overexpressed in tumor cells. Certain ligands could be used to change the surface of liposomes, as shown by the receptors. Antibodies, nucleic acids, protein peptides, iNGR, small molecules like folic acid, and carbohydrates are some of these ligands. Besides being used for specific medicines, liposomes are also a great way to get drugs to people who need them. However, liposomes have not yet reached their full potential because there are only 14 different types of liposomal goods on the market. We have learned more about commercial liposomal products that have been approved by both the FDA and the EMA through this research. The materials used in commercial goods and the ways they are made are both carefully thought out (Nekkanti and Kalepu, 2015; Olusanya et al., 2018).

There is no cereal in the world which has no immense patentability as in maize and that’s why it is called the “Queen of cereals”. It is the world’s leading cereals crop after rice and wheat. It is one of most important cereals of Nepal. At national level, it stands second position after rice in term of area and fourth in term of production after rice, potato and sugarcane. Maize is the most important cereals crop of hill and mid hills of Nepal. It is grown single as well as mixed cropping with millets or legumes or potato. Maize crop in hill is grown as rainfed farming. Generally, farmer of such region does not apply chemical fertilizer but they fertilize the land with organic manures in three seasons viz., rainy, winter and spring season. In rainy season it grown in upland while in spring season in low land. The winter maize is grown in Terai and inner Terai in low land as well as upland.

Myology: It is the branch of biological science which deals with the description of different muscles and their accessory structures.

Muscle is a contractile tissue present in all animals. Its function is to produce motion. Impulses from nerve cells control the contraction of each muscle fiber. Contractile part of muscles is muscular tissue.

There are three kinds of muscular tissue in the body:

a. Striated or striped muscle

b. Non-striated or unstriped or smooth muscle

c. Cardiac muscle.

For dissection purpose only striated muscles are included in this book.

Crops that are not part of the customary diet of the local population and grown primarily for their high cash values and export potential are categorized as non- traditional. Non-traditional crops are usually cultivated on low acreage, crops such as ethnic fruits and vegetables, culinary and medicinal herbs, plants for industrial uses etc. are usually considered as non-traditional fruit crops. A non traditional crop may be new to a region or simply new to the grower. Many times non-traditional crops are cultivated to adapt to changing trends in agriculture and demographics.

For growing non-traditional crop proper planning is required to build a comprehensive business case. Realistic assessment of the potential risks and gains is necessary before actual implementation. All aspects of non-traditional crop production, including the agronomics of growing the crop, potential food safety and regulatory issues and marketing needs to be reviewed. Experience of producing conventional crops may not necessarily be directly applicable in producing non-traditional crops.

1. Definition and Scope Pharmacognosy is the study of drugs and other economically valuable materials derived from natural sources, encompassing both plant and animal origins. This field examines a wide spectrum of aspects related to these materials, including their history, production, commerce, collection, selection, identification, valuation, preservation, and ultimately, their use. The term “pharmacognosy” was first formally used by C. A. Seydler in his 1815 dissertation, Analecta pharmacognostica. The word itself is derived from the Greek terms pharmakon, meaning drug or medicine, and gnosis, meaning knowledge. Thus, pharmacognosy literally translates to “knowledge of drugs.” It’s crucial to differentiate pharmacognosy from pharmacology due to their distinct areas of focus within the realm of drugs. Pharmacology, aptly defined as “a discourse on drugs,” centers on investigating the effects of drugs and other chemical substances on living systems, be it organs or entire organisms. In contrast, pharmacognosy directs its attention to the origins, identification, and inherent properties of natural products – often from plants, but also including other biological sources – that exhibit potential medicinal or economic significance. Pharmacognosy, by its very nature, is an interdisciplinary science, integrating knowledge from a variety of scientific domains. A strong foundation in botany is fundamental for the accurate identification and classification of medicinal plants. Chemistry is indispensable for elucidating the chemical constituents of these natural products and understanding their characteristics. Zoology provides insights into drugs and materials derived from the animal kingdom. Moreover, the principles of physics and genetics are applied to tackle diverse issues concerning the identity, purity, quality control, and effective preservation of these important natural resources.