eChapters

Applications of Remote Sensing

The era of satellite remote sensing was open in the 1960s when cameras and electronic sensors were mounted on spacecraft. Nowadays there is a big assortment of satellite systems actively recording information about the Earth. A wide variety of imagery is available from satellites. Both active and passive sensors, operating from the microwave to the ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum collect a large amount of information about the earth’s surface every day. Each of the systems vary in terms of their spatial, spectral, radiometic and temporal resolution. Those characteristics play an important role in defining which applications the sensor is best suited for. The main benefits of satellite remote sensing are the following:

Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that may or may not be radioactive,but if radioactive, have half-lives too long to be measured. These isotopes decay into stable products. Eg. ¹⁴C having 6protons and electrons with 8 neutrons.

Most elements of biological interest (including C, H, O, N, and S) have two or more stable isotopes. Among the stable isotopes, the most useful as biological tracers are the heavy isotopes of carbon and nitrogen.

Abstract

Support Vector Machine (SVM) is a classification and regression prediction tool, widely employed in different fields of science and engineering. A review on some recent plant bioinformatics applications using SVM is made. Different soft wares for SVM are also explained. There is a growing amount of plant genomes data currently available from different sources. Recent advances made using SVM and Feature selection in plant bioinformatics are reviewed

Introduction

Recent developments in genomic and post-genomic research have generated a vast amount of biological data. This data is growing exponentially with the advancement of research technologies. Several plant genomes have been sequenced recently. For instance, the complete sequence of Arabidopsis thaliana and the draft sequence of rice are now available^[1]. Also, sequencing of several other plants including maize, tomato, sorghum, etc is in progress. Considering the amount and complexity of this data, it is impossible for an expert to analyze and compare the data manually. Thus, there is an increasing need for computational methods that can efficiently store, organize and interpret this large amount of data.

Surface anatomy of the organs of left side of abdominal cavity

Rumen

Topography of the rumen: The left side of the abdomen in cow is completely occupied by the rumen except for a small area occupied by the reticulum at its cranial end and the spleen on the craniodorsal aspect sandwiched between the dorsal border of rumen and the diaphragm. The rumen lies in contact with the left abdominal wall extending from seventh or eight intercostal space where it touches the diaphragm to the transverse plane of the tuber coxae where it almost touches the pelvic inlet.

Palpation of rumen: The rumen can be palpated in the left flank of the abdomen and is usually palpated in the dorsal third of the flank region. In ruminants, the contraction begins at reticulum and it continues in rumen in succession and hence is considered as ruminoreticular contraction cycle. It begins with double contraction of reticulum followed immediately by the contraction of rumen. The rumen contraction begins in the cranial sac and progresses to the dorsal sac and then to the ventral sac. During the contraction of the ventral sac, the dorsal sac is forced out which appears as a bulging at the paralumbar fossa. After this, there is a pause of 30 seconds and thereafter the second ruminal contraction begins which is usually associated with eructation. The ruminoreticular contraction cycle ends with the end of second ruminal contraction. Following this, the second cycle begins. Thus there are two palpable rumen contractions per minute. This rate of contraction increases to 2.8 contractions per minute during the act of feeding of the animal.

Site for nerve block

Brachial plexus block

The brachial plexus is the key source of nerve supply to the fore limb. Loss of sensation below the elbow is achieved by blocking the nerve roots contributing to this plexus. In ox it is formed by the ventral branches of 6th to 8th cervical and 1st and 2nd thoracic spinal nerves. These nerve roots pass over the lateral aspect of the middle third of the first rib before anastomosing to form the plexus. All these nerve roots can be blocked by injecting anaesthetic solution on these nerves at the middle third of the lateral surface of the first rib. To reach this site, the needle is inserted between the thoracic wall and the medial face of the shoulder at the level of acromion process of the scapula about 12 to 14 cm cranial to it horizontally in the caudal direction.

The blocking of brachial plexus is indicated for operations for reducing the fractures of the bones of fore arm and manus.

Teeth

Estimation of age from appearance of teeth

The teeth are used as a tool for estimation of age of animal. The time of eruption and the stage of wear of incisors are usually considered as parameters for this purpose. The time of eruption of the incisor teeth in ox has been described under the chapter on gross anatomy of head. The eruption time of incisors in other species is described under the chapter on comparative anatomy of head and neck. To differentiate the deciduous teeth from the permanent teeth is important criteria in this process. The deciduous teeth are smaller, their neck is visible just above the gum line and these are usually whitish in colour. The permanent teeth are larger, their crowns are slightly wider and the neck which separates the crown from the root is concealed inside the gums. These are usually yellowish in colour. In ox, all the four incisors (deciduous) are erupted at the age of 4 years.

The permanent teeth start wearing from fifth year onward. The process of wearing commences on mesiolabial side of the masticatory surface. When the entire masticatory surface is in wear, the outer and inner enamel rings are completely separated by yellow dentin and that particular tooth is considered as leveled. In the process of wearing, the gum starts receding and the neck of the tooth is exposed. In ox, usually the wearing begins at I-1 at the age of 6 years, this is followed by I-2 at 7 years, I-3 at 8 years and I-4 at 9 years. Up to the age of 14-15 years usually all incisors fall off but those remained are reduced to small round pegs.

Sites for surgical interventions

Luxation of patella in cattle and horses

The luxation of patella is a condition wherein the patella of the stifle joint (femoropatellar articulation) is locked above the medial ridge of the trochlea of the femur.

Anatomy of femoropatellar articulation of the stifle joint

The stifle joint is a composite joint formed in two parts. One of these is an articulation between the condyles of distal extremity of femur and the condyles of the proximal extremity of tibia (femoro-tibial articulation) and the other is the articulation between the trochlea of the distal extremity of the femur and the articular surface of the patella (femoro-patellar articulation).

The trochlea of the femur consists of two asymmetrical ridges separated by a groove. The medial ridge is more prominent, wider and a little more extended dorsally than the lateral ridge. The two ridges converge ventrally. The articular surface of the patella is more or less quadrilateral or triangular with the base above and apex below. It has a vertical ridge in the middle and it separates the two concave areas of which the medial one is larger than the lateral. The patella is fastened against the trochlea with the help of three types of ligaments. One of these is the capsular ligament which is attached to the periphery of the articular areas of the two segments of the joint. The other one is the medial and lateral collateral ligaments. The third set of ligaments is the patellar (straight) ligaments.

Surface locations for clinical examination on the wall of thorax

Lymph nodes

Prescapular lymph node is palpable as a cylindrical object just cranial to the point of shoulder. Palpation can be performed by putting the base of the hand on the cranial edge of the scapula and pressing forward with fingers. This enables to roll the skin and feel the lymph node flicking underneath the fingers.

Heart

The clinical examination of heart is performed by percussion and auscultation on the thoracic wall.

For percussion of heart, usually the fifth rib is identified opposite the olecranon of a straight vertical limb. Two fields are identified for percussion of heart. (1) The area of absolute cardiac dullness corresponds to the area of contact of the pericardium with the thoracic wall. It gives a flat sound on light percussion. (2) The area of relative cardiac dullness indicates the outline of heart which is covered by the thin margin of lung. It needs somewhat stronger percussion to define this area which is usually difficult in animals. The absolute dullness is used to test the hypertrophy, displacement and pericardial effusion. In ox, the normal area of absolute dullness is explored in the fourth and fifth intercostal spaces. Traumatic pericarditis may result in absolute dullness in these spaces extending above a horizontal line through the shoulder joint. In horse this area is a triangle bounded by the triceps in front, the sternum below and the lung along the line joining these two. On left side of the normal horse, the dullness extends about 7 cm above the olecranon in the fourth intercostal space and about 3 cm above the olecranon in the fifth space. On the right side, the dullness extends about 3 cm above the olecranon in the fifth space only. In dog, the area of absolute dullness extends about 1 to 2 cm above the sternum in the fourth and fifth intercostal spaces in the line with the corresponding costochondral junction.

True/False

Q.1.    In many clinical research studies, the regression analysis is used to develop models for prediction of an outcome from one or more explanatory variables.
Q.2.    Now a days, the linear, logistic and Cox (proportional hazards) regression models are used frequently in medical research.

Abstract

Any country’s socio-economic development essentially depends on land and water resources. Resource depletion takes place when there is an overstretching due the exploding population, calling for prudent management of the resources. Application of remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) tools in the management of natural resources at different levels including watersheds is quite well known. In addition, applied geoinformatics are also used in research on management of these delicate resources also besides characterization. There is a continuous advent in technology in both hardware and software necessitating updation of application scientist/manager. Once an exclusive tool of elite institutions and government agencies, GISnow became an indispensible part of our day-to-day life. As the urge for information intensifies, new applications of GIS continue to evolve. A concerted effort is needed to develop an information system when vast expanses of natural resources are to be managed and a combination of information tools like remote sensing, global positioning system and GIS always updates the database effectively. However, the cost factor should not hinder the applications at micro level. This necessity calls for attention to popularize free and open sources of software (FOSS) and data (particularly digital elevation models (DEM) and satellite imagery) to put the techniques into use by enthusiasts at village level such that a database at a regional level can be built through participatory GIS. It is in this direc tion the av ailab le li terat ure on appl ied geoinformatics coupled with use of FOSS is reviewed and presented in this article to give an idea as to how an open ended information system could be developed to help the management.

Keywords: Natural resources, management, Remote sensing, GIS, FOSS, DEM

Introduction

Gamhian concept of development gained inspiration from villages where local resources met the optimum needs of the poorest of the poor. Gandhiji was of the view that the process of development of the Nation must begin from its villages. In a country like India, where villages are in the majority the prosperity of the Nation can only be ensured when fanners are considered as development managers. The economic liberty of individuals and villages in effect will lead to the prosperity of the Nation. The anomaly in this regard in our country can be seen in the overcrowded cities and desolated a village that is indicative of major gaps in our approach. Acute migration has created a dearth of strong hands in the villages resulting in overcrowded cities, putting tremendous strains on its infrastructure. Thus economy and-ecology of most regions in the country, both rural as well as the urban areas are threatened.

The Independence has been attained by the nation 65 years ago but Economic Slavery is pervasive everywhere in the Rural India. There must be an Economic Independence drive in the country. This will check rising Economic inequity between rural urban regions.

5.1. Australia’s Experience and Approach to Pest Risk Analysis

Australia applies the principles of pest risk analysis for the identification and management of sanitary and phytosanitary risks associated with new trade proposals and, where the need is identified, to the review of sanitary and phytosanitary risks of existing trade. One such trade activity is the intentional importation of exotic plant species not yet established in Australia.

Of approximately 250 000 plant species in the world, 30 000 have been intentionally introduced to Australia since European colonization, along with an unknown number of unintentional introductions, of which about 2 700 have naturalized (Cunningham et al., 2003). Some become problematic plants of which about 300 have become serious weeds of agriculture and natural ecosystems. Clearly, the majority of plant species have yet to be introduced to Australia and some of these would become weeds if allowed into the country.

The weed risk assessment (WRA) system is a decision support tool that is employed by Australia in applying the principles of pest risk analysis to the review of sanitary and phytosanitary risks associated with the intentional importation of exotic plant species not yet established in the country. The WRA system is used specifically to assess the weed potential of such species. It generates a score for a species based on its history as a weed in other parts of the world, climatic suitability to Australia and biological attributes. The weed risk assessment (WRA) system is one means by which the assessment component of pest risk analysis is addressed. The WRA system is a question-based scoring method that can be operated using a computer or manually using paper-based forms. A Microsoft® Excel spreadsheet version of the system, including documentation, has been made available through the International Phytosanitary Portal

Impact Assessment Approach-Quantitative, Qualitative Participatory and Mixed Methods with Their Advantages and Disadvantages

Quantitative research approach

 Qualitative research approach

 Participatory research approach

Mixed method research approach

Advantages of Quantitative Research

Impact assessment approaches
Impact assessment approaches can be classified into four broad categories i.e. quantitative, qualitative, participatory and mixed methods.
i. Quantitative impact assessment approaches
• It focuses on assessing the degree and extent of the impacts quantitatively.
• Some degree of quantification may be necessary in all impact assessments, in order to evaluate the success of the Intervention and the extent of any adverse effects.
• Largely depends on micro-economic approaches following econometric models
• Involving baseline studies: The precise identification of baseline conditions, definition of objectives, target setting, rigorous performance evaluation and outcome measurement
• Costly and limited scope: Limited in the types of impacts which can be accurately measured and may pose difficulties for inference of cause and effect.

Monitoring and Evaluation are the two management tools that help in keeping a control on the extension programmes as well as raising the level of performance. Monitoring refers to an organized process of overseeing and checking the activities undertaken in a project, to ascertain whether it is capable of achieving the planned results or not. Conversely, evaluation is a scientific process that gauges the success of the projector programme in meeting the objectives. The primary difference between monitoring and evaluation is that while monitoring is a continuous activity, performed at the functional level of management, evaluation is a periodic activity, performed at the business level.

Introduction

In Indian agriculture, horticulture sector has made considerable progress after independence and as a result, horticulture has emerged as one of the major drivers of growth in the agricultural and allied sector. The horticulture sector includes large number of crops viz., fruits, vegetables, ornamental crops, spices, tuber crops, plantation crops, medicinal and aromatic crops, mushroom and their post harvest management. On the production and productivity front, the horticulture sector outperformed conventional food crops. Between 200405 and 201415, horticultural output achieved an annual growth of about 7 per cent as compared to around 3 per cent growth in food grain production. This increase in production has come from an increase in acreage and even larger increase in productivity. Over the last decade, the area under horticulture grew by about 3% per annum and annual production increased by 5.4%. Thereby, India has maintained its second rank in the global production of fruits and vegetables, next only to China. India’s fruit productivity is better than that of China, though China is the largest fruit producing country.

The country is currently producing 295.2 million tonnes of horticulture produce from an area of 24.9 million hectares, which has surpassed the estimated food grain production of 275.68 million tonnes (201617). Though the production of food grains and horticultural produce are not meaningfully comparable due to fundamental differences in resource requirements, their farming practices, characteristics of produce and most importantly, their nutritional and medicinal properties as well as energy value. The special attention was given to the this sector, especially after the introduction of the Horticulture Mission for North East and Himalayan States (HMNEH) and the National Horticulture Mission (NHM) during 11^th Plan period, owing to bumper fruit production. Given the increasing pressure on land, growth strategies have been focusing on raising productivity through high density plantations, protected cultivation, micro irrigation, quality planting material, rejuvenation of senile orchards and an emphasis on post harvest management and marketing of produce for better price realization.

These three requirements are required to be followed in sequence for getting maximum benefits. However, integrated rural energy concept is a new area of work and not much experience is available in this field as compared to other rural development activities. It is difficult to give any guidelines for planning. One can only recommend approaches and not solutions to planning.

The rural area in developing countries are almost always rich in one or another sources of energy, which could be used separately or in combination with other sources in decentralized small scale units, or even on a household scale. Thus, the problem is one of good planning, management and a strong educational and promotions campaign, rather than the non availability of resources or the lack of technology. Further, after planning, prefect development of device and their effective operation is required.

The purpose of the Integrated Rural Energy Planning project should be clearly defined. It may design either for research and development or demonstration for Popularisation of system, education and training, promotion, health or combination of these.

It is usually better to start with a small size to gain experience and build up confidence before undertaking the large scale project. As defined earlier, one of primary requirement of Integrated Rural Energy Planning is to develop energy demand pattern, energy supply system and optimally match demand with supply.

As a result of a number of health advantages provided by functional foods, a substantial rise in their popularity has been seen in recent years (Keservani et al., 2010).

11.1. Support for Start-Up Finance

Access to finance for start-ups is always difficult due to the problem of asymmetric information. Start-ups lack the kind of financial history which banks use to infer the pay back behaviour and the business capacities of the entrepreneur. Innovative start-ups face the additional problem that it is difficult to assess the viability of their business ideas or the prospects of the markets. In addition, banks and other potential investors often decline to get involved when the relatively small amount of capital requested by a new business is out of proportion with the efforts that the investors must make to screen and evaluate the start-up project.

These problems are even greater for companies engaging in IB models, as doing business with the poor is usually riskier - or perceived as more risky - due to BoP customers’ low ability to pay and the greater vulnerability of value chains. Support for start-up finance is therefore essential. Local IB start-ups often lack funding at all stages of the start-up process: the idea stage, when business opportunities are identified, the seed stage, when the market is assessed and the business model developed, and the start-up stage, when the company is formally set up and all the necessary equipment is procured. Different kinds of financial support will be necessary at all stages.

Classical biological control is one of the important tools for the management of invasive species. This involves the introduction and release of natural enemies, usually from the invaders’ area of origin. During the past decade, increasing concerns have been raised about the potential negative impact of introduced biological control agents on non-target organisms. This has highlighted the need to examine and guide the process of importation and release of natural enemies. The third international standard for phytosanitary measures, ISPM 3: Code of conduct for the import and release of exotic biological control agents, is specifically concerned with this process. ISPM 3 was endorsed by members of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in 1995.

There is a growing demand and need for biological control across the globe. This has been fuelled not only by the increasing spate of invasive species but also by the need to develop integrated pest management approaches as well as the increased interest in organic production. Classical biological control of arthropod pests and weeds has been carried out successfully for more than a century (Greathead and Greathead, 1992; Julien and Griffiths, 1998). However, over the years, practitioners have become increasingly aware that introduced biological control agents may have undesirable side-effects (Thomas and Willis, 1998; Howarth, 2000; Follet and Duan, 2000; Lynch and Thomas, 2000; Wajnberg, Scott and Quimby, 2000; Henneman and Memmott, 2001). Initially, this concern was limited to the possible impact of these introduced agents on economically important plants and insects (notably, honey bees, silk moths and weed biological control agents). More recently, increased environmental awareness has drawn attention to the potential danger to all indigenous fauna and flora, particularly rare and endangered species.

To address these concerns, a code of conduct for the import and release of exotic biological control agents was developed with a view to fostering safe importation and release of biological control agents (Greathead, 1997). It was developed over a period of six years and was finally endorsed by FAO member countries at the end of 1995. The code of conduct, the third in a series of international standards for phytosanitary measures developed by the International Plant Protection Convention, was formally published in 1996 as ISPM 3: Code of conduct for the import and release of exotic biological control agents and is available, with other ISPMs

1. Introduction

Global population is expected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050 (UN report, 2019) and food requirement will betwofold of the current levels to feed the growing population. Asia and the Pacific regionaccounts for> 70% of the global population but has only 30% of the world’s arable land (FAO, 2021). An increase in yield of these regions over the years has largely been due to excessive and indiscriminate use of inputs like irrigation, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, agrochemicals etc. and at considerable expense of its natural resources. Most of the pesticide recommendations are also region specific, which are on a few random observations of pest density. Because of low quality of agrochemicals often due to adulteration and increased pest resistance, indiscriminate application is now common especially in high valued crops.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Meaning

The word “Rural” comes from the word “Rurale” which means close to nature and environment, and “Development” means growth or maturation.

Rural development is utilization, protection and enhancement of the natural, physical and human resources to make long-term improvements in rural living conditions. It involves provision of jobs and income opportunities while maintaining and protecting the environment of rural areas.

General Definition

1)     It is based on an operational approach with practicalities with the people covering maximum end users for maximum economic return.

2) Definition by Axinn

R.D. is a process of change among the rural people through change in environment, technology institutions and attitude to eliminate the poverty and improve the way of life.

3) Definition by Miller

R.D. is based on the following components

a)     Development of human resource - It includes the development of rural people by providing education to the rural children and employment to rural youth, socio-economic condition of village can be improved.

b)     Expansion of physical resources - Construction of infrastructures like roads, schools, colleges, post office, bank etc will improve the rural condition.

c)     Extension of communit’s control over the resources.

This chapter introduces approaches for understanding, assessing, and reducing the vulnerability of forest ecosystems to climate change. It examines the impacts of changing climatic conditions on forests and considers factors such as forest fragmentation, biodiversity, tree density, disturbance, and community dependence on forest resources. The chapter discusses methods and models for vulnerability assessment, including indicator-based and spatial approaches, and explains how vulnerability can be mapped and classified. It also considers strategies for minimizing climate impacts and enhancing forest resilience through appropriate management and conservation interventions.

• Content approach

We can identify several different ‘traditional’ approaches to curriculum development. The most common approach until recently is the ‘content’ approach. This is where the curriculum is basically a list of knowledge – things that the agricultural graduating learners need to know. Usually this list is made by a curriculum development committee or group of experts identified at the national level.

Veterinarians may encounter disease outbreaks, sudden increases in illness or unexplained changes in herd production. This chapter presents practical approaches to investigating and controlling such outbreaks. Effective investigation requires systematic collection of clinical, epidemiological, management and environmental information. Identification of affected animals, temporal patterns, potential sources and routes of transmission helps establish possible causes. Appropriate diagnostic sampling and laboratory investigations support confirmation. Immediate control measures may include isolation, biosecurity, treatment, vaccination and environmental management depending on the suspected disease. The chapter emphasizes organized outbreak investigation, rapid decision-making and coordinated control measures to limit disease spread and reduce losses.

Sometimes veterinarians have to deal with disease outbreaks and unexplained changes in herd production. In this situation, broad objectives of the clinician are:- i) To halt the progress of disease ii) To determine the reasons of outbreak iii) To recommend the procedures to reduce the risk of future outbreaks Terminology used in Disease Outbreaks The following terms are commonly used Outbreak - It defines as a sudden increase in the occurrences of a disease when cases are in excess of normal expectancy in the population for the location, season or species. It may affect a small and localized group or may affect a large number of animals. Epidemic- It has been described as an unexpected increase in the number of cases of a particular disease in a specific geographical area. In another words an epidemic is an rapid spread

• A project is a specific plan or design presented for consideration.

• It is a location specific activity with specific objectives, time and cost limitations and of non-repetitive nature.

• In banking, projects refers to an activity in which financial resources are expended to create capital assets that produce benefits over an extended period of time and which logically lends itself to planning, financing and implementing as a unit. Whereas, UNIDO defines a project as a proposal for an investment to create and or develop certain facilities in order to increase the production of goods/services in a community over a certain period of time.

• Projects are common term used by many to denote specific action plans.

• Project can be long term or short term, limited or comprehensive, single sector concentrated or multi sector concentrated.

Summary

This chapter looks at the various approaches available to the farmer for the management of soil fertility. In general there are four approaches, namely, physical, biological and chemical approaches as well as the cropping systems or agronomic approach.This chapter discusses three approaches, physical, biological and cropping system or agronomic approaches. Chemical approach has been treated in chapter 7 of this book. Inoculation is an important technique in legume production. This chapter also looks at inoculation and how it is done.

Leisa

Sustainable agriculture is an important element of the overall effort to make human activities compatible with the demands of the earth’s eco-system. Thus, an understanding of the different approaches to ecological agriculture is necessary if we want to utilise the planet’s resources wisely.

While sustainable agriculture is based on long-term goals but not a specific set of farming practices, it is usually accompanied by a reduction of purchased inputs in favor of managing on-farm resources. A good example is reliance on biologically-fixed nitrogen from legumes versus manufactured nitrogen fertilizers. Low-input agriculture is one of several alternative farming systems whose methods are adaptable to sustainable agriculture.

Low-input farming is based on a reduction—but not necessarily elimination—of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and herbicides. Farmers are adopting these practices primarily to reduce costs, but also because they want to minimize impact on the environment or because they perceive future pesticide regulations.

In a search for information on how to farm with fewer chemicals, it is helpful to examine alternative farming systems in existence that largely exclude chemicals in favor of biological farming practices. Experiences of producers who have successfully practiced these methods are valuable to farmers considering a transition to low-input sustainable agriculture.

The apricot, Prunus armeniaca, L. is a species of Prunus, classified with the plum in the subgenus Prunus. Apricot is believed to have been originated in North-east China and later spread to several parts of the world. The important apricot producing countries are China, Turkey, Italy, Spain, Greece, USA, Morocco, France, Romania, Iraq, Bulgaria, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, India and Australia. In India it is cultivated in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and North East Himalayan region.

Cultivars/Varieties: Hemskerk, Moor park, Kaisha, New Large Early, New Castle, Royal, Raksona, Shiply Early, St. Ambroise, Wenatchee, Chaubattia Alankar, Chaubattia Madhu, Chaubattia Kesri.

Uses

It is used in many ways, such as, in the preparation of jam, nectar, beverages, puree, leather, etc. The karnel is a source of cooking oil. Leaves are used as fodder. Oil cake is used as cattle feed. Dried apricot is an important commercial product.

1. Introduction

Apricot is among the highly nutritious fruits of Rosaceae family and appreciated for its health promoting contents. Studies have shown that apricot fruit is effective in preventing stomach ulcers and oxidative damages of living systems (Enomoto et al., 2010; Miyazawa et al., 2006). Apricot tree belongs to genus Prunus in the Rosaceae (rose) family. Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) is categorized under ‘stone fruits’, along with peaches, plums, almonds, and some cherries, due to its seed being enclosed in a hard, ‘stone’ like endocarp. This fruit is native to temperate Asia, first discovered growing wild on the mountain slopes of China, and long cultivated in Armenia later.

Throughout its history, apricot has been noted for delicious flavor, delicate velvety fruit surface, and early flowering and fruiting. The name apricot is a corruption of the Arabic and Greek al-paraecox which means the early fruit. The old spelling ‘apricock’ is retained in English until the 17^th century. The fruits are mainly consumed fresh but are also cooked and often stuffed. The high sugar content makes them suitable for drying. In china they were also preserved by salting and smoking. Other uses include fruit leathers, nectars, and liquors (Janick, 2005).

Apricot is commonly known as Armenian plum. Its scientific name Prunus armeniaca derives from the assumption that apricot was known in Armenia during ancient times and has been cultivated there for so long that it is often thought to be native of that place. The cultivated apricot has its origin in North-Eastern China, whereas wild apricot, popularly known as ‘Zardalu’, appears to be indigenous to India. Generally, there are two types of apricot, namely, sweet kernel type and bitter kernel type.

Indian gypsy moth: Lymantria obfuscata: Lymantridae

Eggs are laid by the bulky adult female moth, which has only rudimentary wings and hence cannot fly.  Eggs are laid under the bark on the tree trunks or on fallen leaves. They feed on many shade trees and other trees also.  Feeding is gregarious and done during night. The trees are almost completely defoliated. Management involves spot application of contact insecticides at the beginning, when the larvae are small and before they disperse to the different leaves.

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L) is the most important fruit crop of cold arid regions of India. It is one of the most delicious of temperate fruits having pleasing flavour and truly one of the most delectable of the stone fruits.  Exceptional fruit quality consists of blending of sugar and acidity and strong apricot aroma. It has been appreciated and grown for thousands of years on slopes of mountains in Asia and at least two thousand years in Europe.  There are many uses of apricot. It is enjoyed as fresh fruit but a large portion of the production worldwide is preserved primarily by drying. In China, apricot was not only dried but also preserved by salting and smoking. In Japan, apricot (mume) flowers are revered for their beauty and are used since 7–8th century for ornamental purposes.

Genus : Prunus 
Species : armeniaca L.
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16

Of all the temperature fruits belonging to tribe pruneae, apricots after cherries are more exacting in their climatic requirements. For this climate specific, apricots are often described as a fruit that fails where other fruits grow successfully. Apricots lavish continental climate, which is characterized by low rainfall (50 cm per year), warm summers and without much variation in winter temperatures and this winter temperature in temperate regions remain close to -33o C. Apricot trees are said to be drought resistant and can sustains low atmospheric humidity but is very sensitive to low soil moisture content.

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca), also known as Armenian plum, is a delicious fruit with a pleasant flavor and aroma. It is consumed fresh, dried or canned and highly appreciated by many. The name ‘apricot’ (albicocco, albericocco) is most probably derived from the combination of arbor and precox from the Latin word praecocia (precocious), due to its early maturation (Faust et al., 1998).

Origin and Distribution

Apricot is native to north-eastern China whereas wild apricot, known as zardalu, belongs to India. It is introduced in India by the european settlers and missionaries during the late 19^th century.

It is grown in different countries viz., Turkey, Uzbekistan, Italy, Spain, Japan, Algeria, Iran and Pakistan etc. Among these countries Turkey, Uzbekistan and Italy are leading producers of apricot (FAO, 2017). In India, it is grown commercially in hills of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and also in some hills in North-eastern states. It can also be grown in the dry temperate areas like, Ladakh, Kinnaur, Lahul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh and some areas of Jammu and Kashmir. In India, it occupies as area of 13115 ha with a production of 17894 MT (NHB.2010).

• Drought resistant, Salt tolerant and hardy temperate fruit crop
• Highly perishable fruit
• Vitamin A 2600IU
• Thiamine : 217mg/100g
• Wild apricot or Zardalu has originated from India.
• Popular training system – Open vase system
• Apricot bears on spurs and laterally on 1year-old shoots.
• Apricot spur life – 3-4 years
• Ideal thinning agent – NAA @25-50ppm, 20 days after fruit set
• Ideal stage for freezing, canning and drying fully ripe fruits
• Chaubattia Alankar – Kaishu × Charmagz – Low chilling and early ripening
• Chaubattia Madhu – Turkey × Charmagz – Early ripening
• Chaubattia Kesri – St. Amrbois × Charmagz – mid season variety
• Low chilling subtropical varieties – New Castle, Early Shipley, St. Ambroise, Kaisha.

5.1 Introduction

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) is an important fruit crop of temperate regions of India. In India, it is mainly grown in the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand and on a limited scale in North Eastern states. It is popular worldwide owing to their high nutritional value and delicious flavour, which not only can be used as fresh fruit but also has a high importance as processed product (Moradinezhad and Jahani, 2016). Apricot is drought resistant, salt tolerant, hardy and less susceptible to pests and diseases and can be grown with minimum cultural care in the tracts which are otherwise unfit for cultivating other temperate fruits.

The last two decades have seen rapid growth and development in the industrial sector as well as urbanization has increased. Due to globalization and mass production of commodities, the situation in the modern world nothing like ever before. Food and dairy industries are also not left out from this massive expansion. Due to changing behavior and food consumption habits too, there has been a surge in the risk of foodborne illness. This has created a problem in terms of public health and sustainability

The Acceptance Quality Limit, commonly called AQL, is a statistical sampling system used to determine whether a production lot satisfies a predetermined level of quality. Inspectors examine a randomly selected sample and accept or reject the entire lot according to the number and seriousness of defects found. AQL does not require absolute freedom from defects; instead, it establishes an acceptable threshold based on the product, buyer expectations and defect criticality. It provides an efficient and objective alternative when complete inspection is impractical. Textile and apparel inspections commonly follow ISO 2859-1 or ANSI/ASQ Z1.4, which prescribe inspection levels, sample sizes and acceptance-rejection criteria.

Aquaculture is now the food production industry with the greatest rate of growth in the world due to its continued enormous output expansion. However, the sector's sustainability is in jeopardy because of the anticipated impacts of climate change, which are both a present and a future reality. In addition to the numerous stresses that fish stocks currently face-such as overfishing, habitat loss, pollution, disturbances, and invasive species climate change is an extra one. It is necessary to include other anthropogenic forces when assessing the effects of climate change. The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events can have significant consequences, such as storms that destroy property or flood freshwater fields. Different physiological impacts and pressures will alter the growth and development of fish and shellfish, thereby making them more vulnerable to infections and illnesses. In this research, we examine how climate change may affect aquaculture productivity and how that may affect the sustainability of the industry. There has been discussion on several aspects of a changing climate, including increasing temperatures, sea level rise, illnesses and toxic algal blooms, altered rainfall patterns, the unpredictability of outside input sources, altered sea surface salinity, and extreme weather events.

Introduction

In recent years aquaculture has become the fastest growing food production sector in the world with 10% annual growth rate in comparison with 3% for livestock and 1.6% for capture fisheries. FAO (2000) estimates that by 2030, over half of the fish consumed by the world’s people will be produced by aquaculture. It is not only the demand for animal protein but the high returns associated with aquafarming when compared with agriculture or animal  husbandry that has accelerated the growth of aquaculture. Thus, in the last two decades aquaculture with greater emphasis on shrimp farming made fast strides among Asian countries including India. The culture of carps in freshwater and shrimps in brackishwater are the two main culture practices followed in India. During nineties around 10% of 2.7m ha. brackishwater area has been put under farming along with a number of other supporting and ancillary units viz.; hatcheries, feed mills, processing and packaging industry etc.

Aquaculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and seaweed, has grown exponentially in recent decades due to overfishing and the increasing demand for seafood. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of aquaculture practices, including its methods, species, and technological advancements. It also delves into the environmental impacts associated with aquaculture, both positive and negative. Key issues such as habitat destruction, water pollution, genetic diversity, and using wild fish for feed are discussed, along with mitigation strategies and sustainable practices. The chapter concludes with a discussion on policy frameworks and future directions for minimizing the environmental footprint of aquaculture while maximizing its potential to contribute to global food security.

1. Introduction

Aquaculture, or the farming of aquatic organisms, has become a significant component of the global food system. It encompasses the breeding, rearing, and harvesting of fish, shellfish, algae, and other aquatic organisms in various aquatic environments including freshwater, brackish water, and marine water. Aquaculture's rapid expansion has been driven by the decline in wild fish stocks due to overfishing, as well as the growing global population and increased per capita consumption of seafood (FAO, 2020).

Background

In simple term, what agriculture is to land aquaculture is to water and can be defined as the art, science, and business of cultivating plants and animals in water. Considering scope of inland aquaculture in the present discussion would be limited mostly to grow desirable fish/prawn (hence forth termed as fish) in fresh water ponds and to some extent to their seed production in hatcheries. The important activities in aquaculture includes deliberate interventions during the rearing process or life cycle of the stock, management of the culture system and production process so as to increase survival and production of stock. Since, the main goal of aquaculture is to maximize the fish production per unit land/water resources per unit time which primarily depends on the degree of management and intervention. The important forms of intervention and management practices are regular stocking, fertilization, feeding, liming etc. The degree of care taken or effort put in these aspects would determine the level of production.

Introduction

Market intelligence is a basic requirement for attaining global trade competitiveness in agriculture and allied sectors. In a free market economy, a commodity’s current price and expected future price have consequences on its future supply as the entrepreneur’s production plans are accordingly changed. Additionally market intelligence on non-price issues like changes in consumer perceptions, traceability and quality related issues of HACCP is also equally important. This can guide the farmers in deciding the quality and the quantity of a commodity to be produced for particular target market/market segment. Market analysis and quantity that is likely to be in demand and price forecasts for fish are important to producers for rational production planning and for processors/exporters for taking right marketing decisions. Domestic and international input suppliers, bankers, insurers and policy analysts need market intelligence to estimate the requirements of fishers at macro-level for their advance planning.

Introduction

In present times aquaculture is being practiced using both conventional or non-conventional methods with considerable variations. Aquaculture can be termed as – extensive, semi-intensive and intensive based on operations and involvements. An increase in the intensity of aquaculture requires an increase in capital as well as operational costs.

Here we will examine the three main levels of aquaculture used in various habitats and later consider the conventional methods of aquaculture.

Different Levels of Aquaculture

Fish culture practices can be classified into three different kinds or levels on the basis of the intensity of aquaculture in terms of capital as well as operational costs. The chances of crop failure often increase with increasing intensity of aquaculture, which may involve: 

1. Alkalinity is expressed as equivalents of calcium carbonate.

2. Adult fish retained for spawning is called as brood stock.

3. The population, number or weight of a species that is present in that environment is called as carrying capacity.

4. The discharge from a rearing facility, treatment plant or industry is called as effluent.

5. The ability of water to neutralize soap is due to presence of cations (calcium and magnesium).

6. Very soft water – 0 to 20 ppm as CaCO3 .

7. Soft water – 21 to 50 ppm as CaCO3 .

8. Hard water – 51 to 500 ppm as CaCO3 .

9. Very hard water – above 500 ppm as CaCO3 .

10. Aquaculture is believed to be first practices as early as 2000 B.C. in China.

Rural development is greatly aided by aquaculture funding, which improves rural people's standards of living and promotes sustainable economic growth. By analyzing its effects on job possibilities, food security, income production, and poverty reduction, this study investigates the role of aquaculture finance in rural development. It addresses several funding sources and tools used in aquaculture, such as grants, microloans, investment plans, and microfinance, emphasizing the success of these financial tools in helping small-scale rural farmers and business owners. This study also discusses market linkages, risk management, regulatory frameworks, credit availability, and other issues related to aquaculture finance. Legislators, financial institutions, and other stakeholders can create plans to optimize the socioeconomic advantages of aquaculture while fostering inclusive growth by comprehending the relationship between financing for aquaculture and rural development.

Aquaponics is a method of soilless culture that combines aquaculture (raising fish) and hydroponics (growing plants without soil). It’s a sustainable and efficient system where fish waste provides nutrients for plants, and plants filter the water, creating a closed-loop ecosystem. This integration allows for a self-sustaining food production system with reduced water usage and increased resource efficiency.
CONCEPT OF AQUAPONICS – INTEGRATION OF AQUACULTURE AND HYDROPONICS
Aquaponics is a sustainable farming system that combines aquaculture and hydroponics. Aquaculture involves raising fish or other aquatic animals in tanks, while hydroponics is the practice of growing plants without soil, using nutrientrich water instead. Aquaponics merges these two systems into a symbiotic environment where both fish and plants thrive.

With constantly increasing population and need for food security in the present era, an alternate option to safeguard the nutritional well-being of human civilisation is the utmost necessity of the hour. Aquaponics is a system which combines two food-producing systems such as a recirculatory aquaculture system and hydroponics in such a way, that, the waste of one system is utilised in the other system making it a perfect example of the eco friendly model. This system is a soil-less system which can be set up in small vicinity, providing higher outputs. The designs can be changed according to one’s needs, but the main components of the unit should be kept in mind. The main components consist of a fish tank, mechanical filter, biological filter, hydroponics unit along with sump. Although the hydroponics unit are of various kinds but broadly it can be classified into three main types-1. media bed, 2. Nutrient film technique and 3. Deep water culture. If there is a scarcity of land and water or if the quality of soil is poor, usage of aquaponics will be sustainable.

Introduction

Aquaponics is a combination of hydroponics with recirculatory aquaculture system(RAS) as a single production system. Water with fish wastes coming from the fish tank circulates and passes through the filters, the plant grows on beds and water recycles back to the fish tank in an aquaponic system. At f irst solid waste are removed by mechanic filtration followed by biofiltration for removal of dissolved wastes. Ammonia, which is poisonous to fish, is converted to nitrate, a more readily available fertiliser for plants, by bacteria in the biofilter. The plants absorb nitrate and other nutrients when the water passes through plant growing beds, filtering it prior to its arrival in the fish tank.