eChapters

India is one of the most populous country in the world with a population of 1.26 billion (Census,2011). Of which women constitute about 49 percent of the population. Women act as a significant factor in development of the nation. Women from all sphere of life are contributing meaningly towards the prosperity of the nation. Especially, the rural farm women who constitute nearly half of the total rural population. The rural women are the mainstay of Indian agriculture. Their contribution towards agriculture development is worthy of praises. They are capable of accomplishing sustainable development in all the various activities which they have carried out and shown interest. Women are the essential part of society. For a society to develop, women should be given equal importance as the male counterpart. Nurturing of society is possible only if women are nurtured with equivalent opportunities and progress. Indian society is still male dominant, which accounts for low reputation of women. Women are treated as less competent human being. Through passing of time there have been acknowledgement by the Constitution of India on the part of importance of women as a productive humane resource for development of nation. Many measures have been adopted for the gender equality. This paved the way for advancement of empowerment of women.

While fertilizer injectors that mixes fertilizer solutions with the irrigation water flow in the micro irrigation systems, a scientifically prepared fertigation schedule is the software that farmers need to implement a successful fertigation plan.

Though water soluble fertilizers are a special grade of fertilizers manufactured for fertigation per se; I have been assisting farmers to do fertigation with conventional fertilizers, those are familiar to them; like Urea for N, white muriate of potash (MOP) for K. Only in the case of P source they need to acquire water soluble special fertilizers like Monoammonium Phosphate (MAP) or Phosphoric acid. Historically, fertigation by our small holder farmer began in India just by fertigating Urea alone. And applying P and K as direct dry application to the soil with Single Super Phosphate (SSP) or pink MOP, both are not water soluble. Gradually, when farmers realised that fertigation is giving them more yield of the crop and income they warmed up to the idea of full fertigation and demand for water soluble fertilizers like MAP, White Potash, SOP etc. grew.

Human migration involves the movement of people from one place to another with intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new geographical location. The movement often occurs over long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration, within a single country, is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form of human migration globally. Migration is often associated with better human capital at both individual and household level, and with better access to migration networks. Age is also important for both work and non-work migration. People may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups. There are four major forms of migration: invasion, conquest, colonization and emigration/immigration.

Persons moving from their home due to forced displacement, such as a natural disaster or civil disturbance, may be described as displaced persons or, if remaining in the home country, internally-displaced persons. A person who seeks refuge in another country can, if the reason for Annual Net Migration Rate 2015–2020. Prediction by UN in 2019.leaving the home country is political, religious, or another form of persecution, make a formal application to that country where refuge is sought and is then usually described as an asylum seeker. If this application is successful this person's legal status becomes that of a refugee.

Soil is the most fundamental resource to fulfill basic requirements of food, fiber and shelter of human race. Although soil is perceived as something of insignificant value and it is considered as dirt but humans cannot survive without soil. Soil forms
basis for all terrestrial life. Soil provides a wide range of ecosystem services (Table 1) that make humankind to survive and progress.

India is fortunate in terms of natural wealth, which is manifested in its great plants diversity. Since time immemorial medicinal plants nature hidden and to a large extent unexplored treasure has been used virtual in all human cultures around the country. The wide spread use of herbal remedies and health care preparation from commonly used traditional herb and medicinal plants as those described in ancient texts such as Vedas, the Quran and the Bible have been traced to the occurrence of natural products with medicinal properties. Ancient people used plants as purgatives, sedatives, antitussives, and to alleviate a wide range of ailments such as fever and insanity. According to WHO, 3.5 billion people in developing countries use plant based medicines for their primary health care. WHO also indicates that over 30% of the world’s plants species have at one time or another been used for medicinal purpose.
 
The people of India have been using thousands of medicinal plants for curing various diseases suggesting that Ayurveda has been widely use to maintain human health. Ancient Indian medicinal heritage is based on 7000 plant species and about 8000 herbal remedies have been codified in the Ayurveda. Plants in Ayurveda have Sanskrit names the synonyms; each plant may have synonyms ranging from five to hundred.

Human being as a hunter has depended mostly on animal food and some fruits. With the progress of civilization, he settled down and

started agriculture around 7000-10,000 B.C. He started depending on plant grains to take care of his energy and nutritional requirements in addition to animal foods. Initially cereal grains must have mostly accounted for his staple food requirements. Taste and health requirements must have prompted him to diversify his crop production programme. It is this need that must have made him to cultivate oilseeds, fibre and other crops.

Oilseeds, thus, have been under cultivation since antiquity. Rapeseed and sesame have been described in the Indian Sanskrit writings of 2000 BC. Historically, extraction of oil seems to have been a batch process. Seeds kept in gunny bags or boxes were pressed to remove oil. The separated oil on clarification was used for food and non food purposes. The resulting cakes were utilized as animal feed or thrown away into fields which helped in improving the soil fertility. Human beings slowly discovered the uses of oil and other oilseed products for various food and non-food purposes.

There are several species of plants in the world whose oil can be utilized for human consumption. Though around 40 oilseeds are known, only around a dozen oilseed crops have become commercially important. There are ten seed crops and three tree crops. The seed crops are groundnut, rapeseed- mustard, sesame, soybean, sunflower, cottonseed, safflower, niger, castor and linseed. These are mostly annual crops. The three major tree oil crops are palm, olive and coconut.

The magnitude and trajectory of changes in ecosystem services and functioning have been as conspicuous as has never been until before 1980’s in this subcontinent. Both the services and resilience of agro-ecosystem, the pivotal for agricultural production and security have been disrupted in the name of modernization of agriculture as well as commercialization.
The impact of green revolution in India, that look place during 1960’s and 1970’s have started eroding very fast and as the consequence of this green revolution, the ground water depletion has gone to the worst, it is contaminated either. 40 % of ground water in Punjab has been moderately or severely contaminated leaving agriculture a coercive proposition both from economic and ecological perspective. 10-15 tonnes of top soil are being eroded per hectare per year in its wrong welcoming to farm mechanization process. Most of the highly yielding varieties which did the ‘magic revolution’ now has been fatigued or segregated either. The social-ecological impacts on agriculture perhaps have been both disruptive and deleterious. Due to unabated fragmentation of holding which again is tiny in size, has initiated another problem of resource and energy wastage, bad enough to add to an ecological disruptions.
With a non-denial to the gleaming success of green revolution, which ensured us with much awaited food security and self-reliance, has its intrinsic weakness and coercion as well.

Plants have been a major source of therapeutic agents since time immemorial. The increasing acceptance of traditional herbal systems of medicine, like Ayurveda, within India and outside has resulted in the revival of ancient traditions of medicine. Medicinal plants and their derivatives are thus looked upon not only as a source of affordable healthcare but also as an important commodity item of international trade and commerce. As per World Health Organization estimates, traditional medicines, mostly plant drugs, cater to the health needs of nearly 80% of the world population. The medicinal plant related trade is growing rapidly every year due to the growing recognition of natural products being non-narcotic, with relatively less side effects and being easily available at affordable costs.

In India, medicinal plant sector has traditionally occupied an important position in the socio-economic, cultural and spiritual arena of rural and tribal lives. About 8000 flowering plants, 650 lichens, 650 algae, 200 pteridophytes and 150 bryophytes are attributed with medicinal properties. The Indian coded systems encompasses a large number of treaties on recognized systems of medicine viz. Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha. The Ayurvedic system of medicine, which cater to the health needs of a major segment of population currently utilizes as many as 1000 single drugs and over 8000 compound formulations of recognized merit. Other systems of medicine viz. Siddha, Unani and Amchi (Tibetan) systems of medicine together utilize about 1800-1900 medicinal species. Many medicinal plants are the source of clinically useful prescription drugs being used in modern systems of medicine. Also incredible knowledge on phyto medicine is acquired in non-coded form by tribals and rural community, as is clear from evidences related to folklore medicine. Recognizing their importance, medicinal plant sector has been identified as one of the key areas by the Government of India and the Department of Indian System of Medicine and Homeopathy.

Birds possess great intrinsic interest, they are certainly among the most attractive population of all wildlife groups. Moreover, it is widely recognised that birds can act as valuable indicators of the quantity and quality for wildlife. The studies on avian communities attracted great attention over the past several years all over the world. Much of the early efforts emphasized on the patterns and processes in the avian communities and the listing of species. Previous workers mainly concentrated on the narrow perspectives and focused on single variables, but the recent studies have emphasised the necessity of multi- scale, multi-factor approaches and the inclusion of both short term and long-term temporal variables. The difficulties of assessing numerous variables and several scales, both temporal and spatial, seem to have discouraged the contemporary ecologists from embarking on studies on avian communities.

The Western Ghats is well known for the wealthy and unique assemblage of flora and fauna and is one among the 25-biodiversity hot spots identified on the earth. Arising gradually from the narrow Konkan and Malabar coasts, these mountains run 1,600 km north south between the River Tapti in Gujarat and Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu covering an area approximately equal to 1,60,000 km². Kerala State, located between 8° 4’ and 12° 48’ N and 74° 52’ and 77° 37’ E is known for rich biological resources on account of availability of a variety of ecological niches and habitats ranging from lush tropical forest, valleys, plains and coastal areas.

1.1. Background

Once this beautiful planet conceived human civilization with the glory of motherhood, the birds kept on twittering in an ecstasy of joy and freedom; the ripples of pristine rivers, blue and giggling, offered shelter to silvery fishes and pink Amazon Lilies! But human greed has defeated its own needs. So, what had been a means to survive now has turned into tools to triumph, rather, a weapon to destroy her own creation. By this time, we have transformed fertile lands into a barren Arizona, deep forests into a nasty slums and blue rivers into a filthy stream, called Yamuna.

The advent of the Anthropocene, implies that an unprecedented era of human impact on the natural environment, is now so large that the Earth has entered a new geological epoch; it is leaving the Holocene, the environment within which human societies themselves have developed (Gornish and dos Santos, 2016; Reynolds, 2021). Climate change is a prominent sign of human- driven changes to the global environment. There is every reason to be alarmed about anthropogenic climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss, all of which have been accelerating in recent decades and do pose “existential crisis” (Díaz et al., 2020; Abhilash et al., 2021). Sixth Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released on February 28, 2022, paints a troubling picture as limiting global warming to 1.5oC (a global target in the Paris Climate Agreement) is not safe for all. If warming exceeds 1.5oC, even temporarily, much more severe, often irreversible effects of climate change will occur, land and ocean temperature change, sea level rise and ocean acidification, loss of Arctic Sea ice and ice sheets, stronger storms, longer heatwaves and droughts, abrupt precipitation mainly intensity and seasonal distribution, thawing permafrost and more (IPCC, 2013). On the basis of the Sixth Assessment UN Secretary-General António Guterres said “The alarm bells are deafening, and the evidence is irrefutable: greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel burning and deforestation are choking our planet and putting billions of people at immediate risk.” According to the United Nations (2015), there are still 836 million people in the world living in extreme poverty (less than USD,1.25/ day). And according to the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), at least 70% of the very poor live in rural areas, most of them depending partly or completely on agriculture for their livelihoods. It is estimated that 500 million smallholder farms in the developing world are supporting almost 2 billion people, and in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa these small farms produce about 80 percent of the food consumed (IFAD, 2011). The rural poor often depend partly on forests for their livelihoods (World Bank, 2002). It is estimated that between 660 and 820 million people (workers and their families) depend totally or partly on fisheries, aquaculture and related industries as a source of income and support (HLPE, 2014).

Agriculture occupies a significant place in the economy of India. It contributes nearly 20% to the Gross Domestic Product [GDP] and provides employment to around two-thirds of nation’s population Agricultural commodity exports account for nearly 20 per cent of the total export earnings of the country. The agricultural produce sector has been one of the most important components of Indian economy. Considerable progress has since been achieved in scaling new heights in the production of foodgrains, commercial crops like cotton, sugarcane, tea etc., fruits, vegetables and milk. The increasing trend of agricultural production has brought, in its wake, new challenges in terms of finding market for the marketed surplus. There is also pressure from all segments of agricultural economy to respond to the challenges and opportunities that the global markets offer in the liberalized trade regime. To benefit the farming community from the new global market access opportunities, the internal agricultural marketing system in the country also needs to be integrated and strengthened. In particular the market system has to be revitalized to a) provide incentives to farmer to produce more; b) convey the changing needs of the consumers to the producers to enable production r burning; c) foster true competition among the market players and d) to enhance the share of farmers in the ultimate price of his agricultural produce.

Plants are used for many purposes apart from food such as industrial products like perfumes, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, food additives, cosmetics and also for rectifying the side effects of allopathic medicines, etc. Interest was taken in the chemical constituents of plants in the very early days of modern science. Plants were used for very many purposes besides providing food, such as for treating medical ailments and for dyeing in textiles.

To the agricultural chemists, any biological organism is ultimately constituted from the elements like C, H, O, N, P, Ca, Mg, S etc. Two or more elements combine to form complex organic compounds such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, enzymes, alkaloids, glycosides, organic acids and many more complex compounds. These biomolecules can be classified into two main major metabolites. (1) Primary metabolites and (2) Secondary metabolites.

Meteorology is derived from the Greek word meteoro which means above the earth’s surface; i.e., the atmosphere. The state of the atmosphere experienced at a given time, in any location on the surface of the earth is known as weather. Thus meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere or the weather. It is a branch of physics dealing with atmosphere and it is often quoted as the ‘physics of the lower atmosphere’. The main focus of meteorology is to understand the weather processes and forecast the weather. Solar radiation, the air mass and moisture are the three key ingredients that make up weather. The exchange of heat, moisture and momentum between the earth’s surface and the atmosphere determines the characteristic of weather. The observable weather events are known as meteorological phenomena and are defined by a set of variables called weather elements. Atmospheric temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, wind and visibility, etc. are examples of such weather elements. The weather elements are not separate entities. They are closely related with each other and are highly variable in nature. Meteorology explains and analyses the changes of these weather elements.

METEOROLOGY

The major subdivisions of meteorology are dynamic meteorology (or atmospheric dynamics) and physical meteorology (or atmospheric physics). The dynamic meteorology is concerned with the analysis and interpretation of the three-dimensional, time-varying, macro scale motions and energy transformations in the atmosphere. The science of dynamic meteorology is meant to develop models based on the hydrodynamic and thermodynamic equations. The physical meteorology is concerned with the processes that alter the physical properties and the chemical composition of air parcels as they move through the atmosphere.

Dr Chauhan is a name that resonates with compassion, innovation, and an unyielding commitment to animal welfare. With a career spanning over three decades, he has emerged as a towering figure in the field of veterinary medicine, touching the lives of animals and humans alike through his groundbreaking work and empathetic approach. His exceptional dedication to the health and well-being of cows has earned him the affectionate nickname “Cowpathy Man,” a testament to his pioneering efforts in bovine healthcare, conservation of indigenous cows and his relentless advocacy for these gentle creatures.
From a young age, Dr. Chauhan displayed an innate connection with animals. Growing up in Aligarh, U. P. surrounded by rural landscapes and farm animals, he developed a deep appreciation for the role of cows in sustaining communities. This early bond shaped his career path, guiding him toward Veterinary Medicine with a special focus on bovine health. After earning his veterinary degree, he embarked on a journey that would not only establish him as a leading expert in the field but also as a passionate advocate for the humane treatment of animals.
Dr. Chauhan quickly rose to prominence due to his innovative approach to Veterinary care. While he treated animals of all kinds, his work with cows became the cornerstone of his career. Recognizing the cultural, economic, and ecological significance of these animals, he delved into research on common bovine diseases, nutrition, and sustainable farming practices. His dedication led to the development of innovative diagnostic protocols, treatment and preventive measures, improving the health and productivity of cows across the region.

As per the projection of International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, there is likelihood of shortfall of 41% in food production in India by 2020 and need to produce 300mt of food by 2020. India is the seventh largest country in the world with a population of more than 1.03 billion and with 1.93 population growth rate. To overcome such problems we have to go for horizontal or vertical increase in production. As the cultivable area and water resources are limited to bring under cropping, except by way of increasing the cropping intensity/cropping system, horizontal increase has little scope. While the vertical increase in production has tremendous scope with better value added varieties and farmer friendly sustainable management and production technologies.

1.1 Weather Forecasting
Farmers have always been at the mercy of the weather, and accurate forecasting has become an essential tool for their decision-making process. Weather forecasts play a critical role in supporting farmers’ decision-making processes, from crop planning and management to harvest planning and economic decision-making. Crop planning and management is one of the key areas where weather forecasts are crucial. Farmers use weather forecasts to determine the best time to plant seeds, taking into account temperature, moisture, and sunlight requirements. This enables them to choose crops that are suitable for the predicted weather conditions. Additionally, forecasts help farmers optimize irrigation, reducing water waste and ensuring crops receive adequate moisture (Fig.1.1).
Weather forecasts also help farmers mitigate weather-related risks. Extreme weather events like floods, droughts, heat waves, and storms can have devastating effects on crops. Accurate forecasts enable farmers to prepare for and respond to these events, reducing crop damage and loss. For instance, forecasts help farmers take measures to protect crops from frost and freeze damage, which can be catastrophic for certain crops.

Human beings, considered to be the highly evolved living organisms, have been making consistent and constant efforts to lead comfortable life without much concern for the conservation of nature and adversities to other living and nonliving entities existing in the universe. To meet the requirements of food, feed, fibre, timber and other needs, the plants that could supply the above were selected and domesticated. When the useful plant species were cultivated over large areas repeatedly year after year, the problems afflicting plants that were not recognized earlier as constraints for crop cultivation, assumed monstrous proportions wiping out entire crops and ruining the livelihood of the people of that geographical location/country. World history is replete with numerous instances of huge crop losses caused by microbial plant pathogens resulting in malnutrition, hunger and death. Migration of millions of people to other countries for their survival, became unavoidable. Such historical evidences threatening the existence of humans necessitated to investigate the causes of destructive diseases like late blight and heliminthosporiose diseases affecting respectively potato and rice, the staple food of the largest populations of the world. In order to take appropriate measures for minimizing losses due to crop diseases and to mitigate the sufferings of man and the animals, application of various short- and long-term disease management strategies has become indispensable for the profitable cultivation of crops

Project Formulation and Finance
Project Formulation and Finance involves two key aspects of project
management: developing the project’s structure and ensuring it has the necessary financial resources. Here’s a closer look at each part:
1. Project Formulation: This is the initial phase where you define the project, including its scope, objectives, and outcomes. It involves identifying stakeholders, setting goals, and determining the resources required. Effective project formulation ensures that the project is feasible, aligns with organizational strategy, and addresses the stakeholders’ needs.
2. Project Finance: This aspect focuses on securing the financial resources needed to execute the project. It includes planning the budget, analyzing investment requirements, and managing financial risks. Financing strategies might involve obtaining funds through loans, equity, grants, or other financial instruments. This phase also covers the assessment of financial viability and the preparation of financial forecasts to ensure that the project is economically sustainable.

India is the second most populous country in the world with a population of 1.3 billion and is expected to reach 2 billion by 2050. Though the country transformed itself from a food deficit nation to surplus donor in agricultural commodities in a short span of 70 years, it also encountered several stumbling block along the way. In post independence era, the governments of the day adopted a multi-pronged strategy of population control, development of irrigational infrastructure, high yielding varieties of crops and agricultural development schemes that resulted in green revolution, white revolution, rainbow revolution. etc., which saddled the country in a comfortable position as far as food production is concerned. In the process, what went unnoticed was the hidden hunger resulting in malnourished population with different kinds of ailments. ‘Hidden hunger’ manifested due to an imbalanced diet, lacking in micronutrients–vitamins, minerals and other essential diet components. Serious among them, which plague the country even today are iron deficiency causing anaemia, Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) causinig blindness in children and increased risk of other illnesses and death. Anaemia and calcium deficiency among women and stuntend growth in children are the other diet related diseases. About 10% of population are also suffering due to over feeding or mal-noursihment. Economic burden and loss of human productivity due to lifestyle diseases is taking a toll in India during the last couple of decades.

At present, the world can very broadly be divided into two main categories. (i) Industrialized countries where food is plentiful and the diet is varied, and the most prevalent diet-related disorders are cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, obesity, diabetes and osteoporosis. (ii) Developing countries, where food is scarce and malnutrition is a major problem or where traditional foods and cultural practices are being replaced by western-style diets resulting in lifestyle diseases/disorder. India falls in the second category. Diversified food habit is one of the direct impacts of increasing disposable income in India. Global epidemiological studies with reference to food habits have shown that increase in lifestyle diseases are directly related to reduced consumption of fruits and vegetables and increased consumption of animal food (meat and animal fat).

Migration is inevitable in the process of economic development (Afsar, 2003; Ballard, 2005). There exists a two-way causation between migration and economic development. Migration induces economic development while economic development induces further migration. Migration can be two types: international migration and internal migration. International migration deals with migration across the countries of the world, while internal migration deals with migration within the national boundary of a country (Zohry, 2005). There are four streams of internal migration which are rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-rural, and urban-urban. Among these four streams, rural-urban migration has certain distinct characteristics which affect developmental aspect of both places involved namely, place of origin and place of origin and place of destination. It is well known that developmental disparities between rural and urban triggers rural-urban migration. People generally migrate from less developed rural countryside to more developed urban centers they left farming and engaged in modern works which are more profitable and low risk oriented (Bhattacharya, 1993; de Haan, 1997). The impact of migration can be assessed in several ways; therefore welfare impacts, social impacts, economic impacts etc. For example, remittance send by the urban migrants to their native villages help them to evade poverty; increase consumption; invest more in agriculture, education, health. Remittances have certain social impacts as well.