eChapters

Abstract

Women play a critical and potentially transformative role in agricultural growth in developing countries but they face persistent obstacles and economic constraints limiting their potential inclusion in agriculture. The feminization of agriculture is determined by two major factors, first compared to men, women have much poorer access to and control over productive resources and they have inadequate access to public services, such as training, extension and credit. Women farmers often lack the know-how and the confidence to use the improved technology and most of the new technologies. The reason being most of these advancements are aimed at male specific end users. Giving support to rural women is a way of breaking the vicious cycle that leads to rural poverty so there is need to cut the drudgery of women farmers and make their efforts worthwhile and economical. Development strategies should consider rural women as the epicenter, paying special attention to their social skills both within and without agriculture sector. In terms of equity, women overall have lower awareness of AAS than men do, indicating the importance of targeting women in communications efforts. More trainings are required to generate interest and motivate farm women to learn about the AAS and use it. Closing the gender productivity gap could increase agricultural output in by a significant amount. Increased production would also imply increased food availability and reductions in undernourishment. Integrating Gender and Agriculture within Agricultural Extension System empowers families, helps women to contribute to household incomes, increases productivity & reduces gender gaps in agriculture.

Abstract

84 per cent of the Indian rural women livelihood depends on agriculture. It is estimated that 52-75 per cent of the Indian women engaged in agriculture are illiterate. Prevalence of anaemia among pregnant women ranges between 50%-90%. From these facts it infers that ghost of food and nutritional security haunts the rural women health and prosperity. Female participation in the economic activities also determines the sex ratio because the work determines the worth in the society. It has been observed that in those families where women participate in economic activities, this problem is not severe as compared to those families which do not participate in economic activities. Diverse areas of entrepreneurship exists in rural India for women empowerment. This potential can be realized through policy and infrastructure support from the government and by strengthening proactive synergies among various farm and non-farm sectors activities. Although we are proud of the Indian women in the global arena yet we have peer into the atrocities against them in the name of female foeticide, gender inequality, sexual harassment, dowry system and many more evils with promotion of involvement in socio-economic enterprises, if rural transformation is to be achieved.

Abstract

Women work two-third of the world’s working hours, produce half of the world’s food yet 60% of the world’s hungry are women. They earn only 10% of the world’s income and own less than one per cent of the world’s property. It reveals deep-rooted gender disparity in human society. But I perceive the secondary agriculture an emerging area with vast opportunities for socio-economic transformation and women empowerment across the globe in a way that conventional agriculture doesn’t have. Secondary agriculture is less affected by climatic factors, relatively stable and more amenable to feminization because of off-field nature. If properly supported it could be an effective tool to promote women empowerment and narrow down gender disparity in rural areas. Secondary Agriculture is not a Secondary Sector economic activity and it broadly embraces to product development through agro-processing (food and nonfood), within the all enterprise classes of small or medium or large scale industry. Being entrepreneurial in nature it assures better remuneration and socio-economic security than primary agriculture. An orientation from production agriculture to product development is an essential pathway to sustainable women empowerment as it will lead to shift from subsistence farming to business farming. Later has the potential to contribute to a range of social and economic developments such as employment generation, income generation, poverty reduction and improvements in family nutrition, health and overall food security to the persons engaged in agri-business farming.

Abstract

Women entrepreneurship means the process in which women initiate a business, gather all resources, undertake risks, face challenges, provides employment to others and manage the business independently. Where women population hovers around 50% of the total human population in the world so entrepreneurship by them plays a key role in the development of economy of both developed and developing nations. The problems faced by women entrepreneurs are heavy work load, irregular payment, lack of work guarantee and no maternity benefits, health problems, marketing, financial liberty and being away from home. A different culture is required to promote, motivate and develop sustainable infrastructure for fostering women entrepreneurship. Often, an entrepreneur has to go through a complex set of procedures and formalities to start a business, which not only create irritations and delays but frustrate her efforts until she is exhausted. An urgent need, therefore, is to simplify procedures and formalities. Part of the problem is one of attitudes, which are built on regulatory roles rather than developmental roles. All training and financial agencies need to be gender sensitive. The time has come for an effort to inculcate a spirit of enterprise, self-dependence, creativity, and high goals among women in developing nations. Hence, entrepreneurship must be made part and parcel of the education curriculum.

Abstract

India is one among the major fruit producing countries of the world and offers opportunities of women empowerment through quality fruit production, planting material generation and production of value added products. There is a great opportunity to increase and improve the production of tropical, subtropical, and temperate fruits. Underutilized fruits also have a huge potential waiting to be exploited. This will only be possible with a concerted effort by researchers and growers, especially women to improve quality and increase production based on consumer demand and export potential. Women play significant role in fruit production activities. Unfortunately their access to knowledge, technology, finance, information, and training is minimal which hampers productivity of fruit crops. The mode of female participation in agricultural production varies with the land owning status of farm households. Their roles range from managers to landless labourers. In all farm production, women’s average contribution is estimated at 55 percent to 66 percent of the total labour with percentages much higher in certain regions. About 48 percent of India’s self-employed farmers are women. Thus, rural India is witnessing a process of transition which could be described as feminization of agriculture particularly fruit crop cultivation and their post harvest management. Women play an active role in various production and postproduction activities of horticultural crops. The number of women engaged in horticulture has increased continuously in the past two-three decades due to various factors such as migration of men to urban areas in search of non-farm income, increase in the demand of labour force in construction and other sectors. The data on the women involved in horticulture sector are scanty however the involvement of women in various operations of cultivation and post harvest handling and storage is very high because of entrepreneurial nature of horticulture. There is need to adopt collective and SHG approach to take women contributions to socio-economic significance. Thus horticulture, especially the pre-harvest and post harvest management of fruit crops have considerable employment avenues for women and make horticulture an effective subject of women empowerment.

Abstract

Gender equity is more pronounced in livestock sector where more than 70% participation is from women side as compared to 33% in agricultural farming. About 75 million women are engaged in livestock sector. In India, livestock production is largely in the hands of women. In fact animal husbandry is becoming feminized. At present about 22% of milk and 2% percent of meat is processed into value-added products for trade while in developed countries it is above 90% and 60%, respectively. Traditional dairy products not only have established market in India but also great export potential because of strong presence of Indian diaspora in many part of the world. Value addition to dairy foods would provide health benefits to the consumers and improve the scale of economy in the dairy industry. Nearly half of the milk produced in India (50-55%) is utilized for the manufacture of value-added milk products but only 22% of the total milk produced is processed by the organized dairy sector. Conversion of surplus milk into indigenous milk products in and around production areas is least expensive and more profitable. Most of the animal farming activities such as cleaning of barn, washing of animals and hygienic maintenance, fodder collection, feeding, watering, and health care, management, milking, collection of dung for fertilizer and fuel, care of sick, pregnant and lactating animals, milking, household-level processing and value addition (ghee, curd, khoa, lassi and desi butter-making) are undertaken by women. However adoption of value-added livestock products as an entrepreneurship is scarce activity because of lack of training and financial liberties.

Abstract

Participation of rural women and youth in beekeeping activities provides a unique opportunity to improve rural livelihood and poverty reduction. Women have explored their own niche in beekeeping industry by actively engaging in post harvesting of bee products. Income generation is one of the major reasons for participating in beekeeping activities and beekeeping was ranked number one at the same level as agriculture as major source of income. Post harvesting beekeeping, however, needs liquid capital investment which, limit women and youth to fully participate in the business. Cultural practices are also one of the main hindrances for adult women and youth to participate in beekeeping activities. Nonetheless, presence of beekeeping groups and associations, community banks, forest reserves and beekeeping awareness campaigns in the areas provided opportunities for women and youth to participate in beekeeping. Beekeeping represents one opportunity for income generation which need not be time consuming and can fit in well with women’s priority activities. women be given the opportunity to start beekeeping, it is important that all beekeeping development programs ensure from the outset that extension messages reach rural women, and that they are able to take full advantage of training and credit facilities.

Abstract

Women make up almost half of the agricultural labour force in developing countries (43 per cent according to UN Women data). Empowerment of women is central to achieving the objective of inclusive, equitable and sustainable development. Between the period 2007-08 and 2009-10, the share of person-days in casual employment in MANREGS to the total person-days in all economic activities has also increased. The increase was marginal for male workers but significant for female workers. This again confirms that female workers have been the largest beneficiaries of MANREGS projects. The share of female participation in these public works is more than the share of their male counterparts. The survey shows that women comprise only 13.76% of the total entrepreneurs, i.e., 8.05 million out of the 58.5 million entrepreneurs. Among the states, the largest share in number of establishments under women entrepreneurship is of Tamil Nadu (13.51%) followed by Kerala (11.35%), Andhra Pradesh (10.56%), West Bengal (10.33%) and Maharashtra (8.25%). Average employment per establishment for women owned establishments is 1.67. The main challenges that women face in business are educational and work background, balancing their time share between work and family, problems of raising start-up capital, difficulty in borrowing fund, thought-cut completions endangered existence of small companies, problems of availing raw- materials access to export market without intermediaries, as well as an overall psychological barrier on the part of banks, suppliers, and clients alike. Govt of India and different bodies such as NGOs, voluntary organizations, self-help groups, institutions and individual enterprises from rural and urban areas are active to help the women entrepreneurs in their ventures.

Abstract

Women in India constitute a larger proportion of total unemployed population and hence it is imperative to find out the entrepreneurial problems faced by them. A study was conducted with the objectives to ascertain the financial, marketing and production problems faced by women in their enterprises and assessment of their health status and work place facilities. Boutiques, beauty parlors, embroidery units, fruit and vegetable preservation units and artificial jewelry making were the enterprises selected for study. The results of the study revealed that women faced problems in areas like finance, marketing, health, work place and production. Some recommendations of the study are a) Women entrepreneurs should keep abreast of knowledge about new techniques, financial institutions, training institutions and marketing linkages. b) Information about site or location, physical facilities, transportation etc. must be collected prior to selection of area for development of an enterprise. c) Self help mutually aided groups must be formulated for overcoming common entrepreneurial problems. d) Women should shift to the non-traditional sectors of entrepreneurship in order to earn more.

Woman is an incarnation of ‘Shakti’the Goddess of Power. If she is bestowed with education, world’s strength will double. Let the campaign of ‘Kanya Kelavni’ be spread in every home; let the lamp of educating daughters be lit up in every heart across the regions and religions of the world.

Abstract

Globalization defines a new process of economic integration which is fuelled by neoliberal ideals claiming that an unregulated market economy maximizes economic efficiency and growth. Concept of equability and women empowerment provides durable strength and sustainable development to the programs aimed at promotion of commerce and trade through globalization. The post 2015 Development Agenda have not done much to address the large inequalities and discrimination against women. Global initiatives designed to benefit the daily lives of women and girls not being implemented effectively. This is especially for decision making and financial systems. The right to women needs to be ensured in order: to participate in the elaboration and implementation of development planning at all levels, to have access to adequate health care facilities, including information, counselling and services in family planning, to benefit directly from social security programmes, to obtain all types of training and education, formal and informal. All forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere must be ended. Out of the seventeen sustainable development goals (SDGs), not even the single one will be achieved without including women and girls as equal partners. All countries hold the same responsibility to ensure the full implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development within their own borders, and to support other countries in achieving the SDGs which includes reaffirming and contributing to the fulfilment of gender equality. Women and girls have to be equal partners in sustainable development.

Abstract

Gender Budgeting was first introduced in 1985 and is being implemented globally by more than 50 countries to ensure gender equality goals. India took initial steps towards analysing the gender gap through “Towards Equality” a Report of the Committee on the Status of Women by the Government of India in 1974. Gender based resource allocation in the country was seen from 1990s onwards in the Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97) when for the first time gender perspective and the need to ensure definite flow of funds from general developmental sectors to women was emphasised upon. Women constitute 49% of human population in India so it is extremely important that the untapped gender potential is recognized, reorganised and utilized efficiently & effectively to attain a leading position in S&T sector. India has expanded her R&D base immensely since the turn of the 21^st century. Consequently there has been 10 times enhancement in enrolment of women in S&T disciplines in institutions of higher education since 1989-90. Department of Science and Technology has taken many steps in recent past to strengthen the ecosystem to empower women in S&T domain, particularly by enabling over 4000 of them who had a break in career, primarily due to familial responsibilities, to make a dignified comeback. Several Role Models, who have shown their mettle and made a mark in the chosen field, are emerging and engaging & encouraging the young, Gen Next girls.

Abstract

Beekeeping or modern apiculture is the art and science of rearing, breeding and managing honey bee colonies in artificial hives for economic benefits. Beekeeping has evolved into a farming enterprise that involves the use of sophisticated and artificial techniques to keep honey bees for bee products. It is estimated that beekeeping is practiced in about four lakh villages and provide employment to over 3.50 lakh persons. The existing vegetation wealth of India can sustain six million bee colonies which would produce six lakh metric tonnes of honey besides generating part time employment to more than 15 million rural and tribal households. Rural women have long working hours, spent on food production and processing and/or waged labour, in addition to family care and domestic duties. However, beekeeping represents one opportunity for income generation which need not be time consuming and can fit in well with women’s priority activities. Population, female (% of total) in India was reported at 48.18 % in 2017, according to the World Bank collection of development indicators. Rural population (% of total population) was reported at 66.46 % (83.3 crore) in 2017 as compared to urban population (37.7 crore). There are fewer women than men beekeepers, but women beekeepers are found throughout the developing countries of every continent. Participation of rural women and youth in beekeeping activities provides a unique opportunity to improve rural livelihood and hence poverty reduction. Beekeeping as an agro-industry presents tremendous potential and requires attention on part of planners, policy makers, development agencies and researchers on the one hand and wider publicity about the commercial and scientific uses of beekeeping products on the other. In order to increase income accrued from beekeeping activities, promoting and support of training on processing of secondary bee products to women and youth beekeepers are important. Stakeholder’s involvement in promoting and support beekeeping awareness campaigns is crucial to enhance the contribution of the sector for livelihood improvement and environmental conservation.

Abstract

Women empowerment means capacity of womenfolk to participate as equal partners in cultural, social, economic and political systems with much appreciated and gladly accepted by the society. Acceptance of unequal gender norms by women are still persisting in the society. Moreover, ignorance prevails in rural areas and subordination to men is considered as god-will by the womenfolk. Food, health and education are prioritized to boys and girls’ destiny is linked to surplus resource of the family if any, available. Gender inequality exists in every nation on the planet. Women’s disempowerment is all over the world, comprising countries of east and west so empowerment of women has become one of the most important concerns of 21st century’s world. More than one third of the world’s adults, most of them women, have no access to printed knowledge, to new skills or to technologies that would improve the quality of their lives and help them shape and adapt to social and economic change. There are 130 million children who are not enrolled in primary school and 70 per cent of them are girls. Women and girls around the world are more likely to live in poverty due to discriminatory and unjust economic policies, pervasive gender inequality, war and instability and climate change. Human society has to work for sexual and reproductive health and rights, freedom from violence, economic justice, and leadership as these are the critical building blocks for women’s rights. When a woman has these rights, she can be strong, safe, powerful, and heard. Cultural and religious factors are hurdles to women empowerment so the greatest need of the hour is to change the social attitude towards women. There is need to envision a world where all women, girls, and trans people have a voice and choice in the work they do. They are paid equal wages in safe and secure workplaces and they have access to justice and rights. Strengthening women’s leadership should be priority area because it is an integral part of social perception towards women status. The future of women’s human rights depends on a strong pipeline of diverse young women leaders, as well as on creating opportunities for leaders from different generations and movements to learn from each other. Long lists of international and national initiatives are available on the websites of various governments and United Nations but the tangible results are still awaited mainly because of poor/ half heartedly implementation.

Abstract

World Economic forum (WEF) which evaluated 149 countries on four parameters including economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment, said that it would take 108 years to close the overall gender gap. That means the economic opportunity gap-based on participation, pay and advancement in the workforce-remains the area that is going to take the longest time to close. Globally, women are paid less than men. Women in most countries earn on average only 60 to 75 per cent of men’s wages. Contributing factors include the fact that women are more likely to be wage workers and unpaid family workers; that women are more likely to engage in low-productivity activities and to work in the informal sector, with less mobility to the formal sector than men. India’s inequality crisis hurts girls and women the most. An Oxfam report on inequality published in January 2019 revealed that in the workplace, women still receive 34% less wages than their male counterparts for the same work. In J&K, incidences of domestic violence, dowry, etc are rampant. State Women Commission J&K receives 1600-1700 domestic violence cases every year, majority cases being from the Kashmir Valley. Men’s silence, insensitivity and indifferences with regards to gender equality practices need to be the focus theme of the time. The fight for gender equality cannot be fought by women alone. Men have a key role to play in demanding and supporting this societal shift by being a part of the movement.

Keywords: Women empowerment, global perspectives, Indian perspectives, way forward.

Abstract

Political participation of women, on equal terms with men, at all levels of decision-making is essential to achieve the principles of equality, sustainable development, peace and prosperity. Participation is a development approach, which comprises the involvement of disadvantage segments of population in the design and implementation of policies concerning their wellbeing. To achieve gender equality by 2030 requires urgent action to eliminate the many root causes of discrimination that still curtail women’s rights in private and public spheres. Discriminatory laws need to be changed and legislation adopted to proactively advance equality. 49 countries still lack laws protecting women from domestic violence, while 39 bar equal inheritance rights for daughters and sons. Based on data from 87 countries, 1 in 5 women and girls under the age of 50 will have experienced physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner within the last 12 months. International efforts through UN are being encouraged throughout the world but are constrained by lack of national policy, cultural factors, social factors, religious factors, economical factors and role of gender base patriarchy. Secular and sustainable democracy prevails only when women experience benefits equally with their male counterparts. Creating adequate space in politics for women participation is essential to sustain real democracy and oblige mothers, wives, daughters and sisters and Gender Responsive Governance is the best strategy for this which embodies measures, attitudes and practices of different stakeholders, both men and women, at different levels of governance with a clear purpose to impact issues that foster women’s empowerment and promote gender equity and social justice. It is a process that promotes and sustains the ability of women to fully participate in the governance and development process, enhances their ability to raise critical questions about inequality and violence against them without fear and pressure.

History of Genetics

Lamarck (1744-1829): Proposed theory of “Inheritance of acquired characters”.

Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882): published his classic book “Origin of Species” in 1859 and proposed theory of evolution and survival of the fittest.

Johann Greger Mendel : Gave laws of heredity in 1866 and is considered as Father of Genetics.

W. Flemming: The term mitosis was first used by Fleming in 1882.

W. Waldeyer: Coined the term “Chromosome” in 1888.

August Weisman: Gave the “Theory of Germplasm” in 1889.

Veterinary surgery: The surgery which is practiced on animals. It deals with the treatment of deformities, injuries, or disease conditions by manipulation with the hands. The term “Surgery” is derived from a Greek word – Chirurgia (Cheir – Hand, Ergon – work).

The papyri of Egypt contained information on treatment of fractures and superficial wounds.

In Vedic era, Salihotra and Palakapya were the greatest ancient Indian veterinarians. Salihotra treated horses and Palakaya elephants.

“Susruta Samhita’ is the earliest known work dealing with the medical science especially surgery.

Hobday wrote first comprehensive text on surgical diseases of the dog and cat.

The theory and practice of asepsis was introduced by Joseph Lister.

W.S. Halsted introduced the principles of surgery and use of rubber gloves.

Pathology is derived from Greek word (Pathos=disease + logos=study). It is study of structure and function of body in disease.

Veterinary Pathology is the study of anatomical, chemical and physiological alterations in comparison to normal due to disease in animals. Pathology has responsibility to forms a vital bridge between preclinical sciences (Anatomy, Physiology, Biochemistry) and clinical branches of medicine and surgery.

General Pathology deals with the basic alterations of tissues as a result of disease. e.g. fatty changes, thrombosis, amyloidosis, embolism, necrosis etc.

Systemic Pathology is related to the alterations in tissues/organs of a particular system. e.g. respiratory system, genital system etc.

Special Pathology is the application of the basic reactions of gene general pathology to various specific diseases.

Gross or Macroscopic Pathology is the examination of tissue without the help of a microscope.

Zoonoses

Zoonoses are those diseases and infections which are transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans under natural conditions. The emergence of a pathogen into a new host species is called disease invasion or “disease emergence”.

Anthrax is a notifiable disease and primarily occurs in herbivores but it is a type of bio-terrorism agent and called as malignant pustule, malignant edema, woolsorters disease, ragpickers disease, maladi charbon, splenic fever etc. Causative agent is Bacillus anthracis contains vegetative spore and lethal dose is 2,500 to 55,000 spores.

Brucellosis is one of the world’s most widespread zoonoses caused by the genus Brucella. In human it is called Malta fever, Undulant fever, Mediterranean fever, Rock Fever of Gibraltar and Gastric Fever while in animals it is called Bang’s disease, Enzootic abortion, Epizootic abortion, Slinking of calves, Ram epididymitis and Contagious abortion etc. it is also called occupational disease.

Leptospirosis is a disease of animal sand humanbeings caused by genus Leptospira and called as Weil’s syndrome, Canicola fever, Canefield fever, 7-day fever, Rat Catcher’s Yellows, Autumn fever, black jaundice). Fletcher’s EMJH media is used to culture the organism.

Veterinary physiology deals with the study of normal functions of animal systems. It includes the study of how animals work and the physical and chemical processes that occur within animals. The examples of various biological processes in animals include gas exchange, blood and circulation, osmoregulation, digestion, nervous and muscle systems, respiration, growth, reproduction, endocrine function and how animals behave and function in different environmental conditions. This also includes the possible manipulation of the reproductive processes by means of hormone manipulation techniques for more efficient livestock and poultry production.