eChapters

ABSTRACT

Farmers in India are at the mercy of traders especially the middlemen who fix lower rates at the farmers end. The farmers are desperate as they are not aware of the prices elsewhere and they have meager produce at their hand. Market led agriculture is need of the hour which needs market intelligence. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu in collaboration with Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, Hyderabad centre initiated the project for the benefit of farmers and traders covering six major markets of South India as Pilot project. Main emphasis of the project is covering Perishable items of 161 commodities, updating the daily wholesale and retail price through www.tnau.ac.in/ www.indg.in @ 1.00 PM with the help of Market Analysts recruited for this purpose. Ensuring the last mile connectivity and reaching the large number of users, the price information is being delivered through Mobile phone. This paper also explains about its additional features.

Introduction

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), also known as common flax or linseed, is a member of the genus Linum in the family Linaceae. Linseed is an annual oil crop that is grown either for its fibre (fibre flax) or for its oil. The area under annual cultivation is 3 million hectares, accounting for 1% of the total world production of plant oil. The five major flax-producing countries are Canada, China, India, the United States, and the European Union.Canada with 614,000 metric tonnes of flaxseed produced in the year 2013-2014, is the world’s largest producer of flax and accounts for nearly 80% of the global trade in flaxseed (Oomah 2001; Bhatty, 1995)

Flaxseed, of Mesopotamic origin, has been cultivated in Mediterranean region and India since 5000 BC, being used principally for the fabrication of cloths and papers (Soni, et al., 2016).

With the adoption of cotton as a fibre crop for cloth preparation, fibre flax production declined and the major use of flax was switched from stem fibre to seed oil. It is a food and fibre crop cultivated in cooler regions of the world. Textiles made from flax are known in the Western countries as linen, and traditionally used for bed sheets, underclothes, and table linen. Its oil is known as linseed oil. In addition to referring to the plant itself, the word “flax” may refer to the unspun fibres of the flax plant. The plant species is known only as a cultivated plant and appears to have been domesticated just once from the wild species Linum bienne, called pale flax. (Allaby et al.,2005). Fibre flax is currently grown in the cool-temperate regions of China, the Russian Federation and Western Europe while linseed cultivars are grown in Canada, India, China, the United States and Argentina (Green et al., 2008).

Introduction

(Titrimetric Method of  Cherry and crandall, 1932 Modified by Tietz and Fiereck, 1966).

In 1932, Cherry and Crandall employed olive oil as the substrate for pancreatic and serum lipase (LPS. Triacylglycerol lipase) determinations. In subsequent years this method was improved (Tietz et al., 1959; Tietz and Fereck, 1966: Tietz. 1972), reducing the original 24 h, period to 6 h and finally to 3 h.

Principle
This procedure is based on the hydrolysis of triglycerides in olive oil into fatty acids, diglycerides and to some small extent into monoglycerides and glycerol.

Fatty acid esters of glycerol are known as fats or lipids. A fat, in its liquid state, is called ‘oil’. Oilseed plants such as castor, groundnut, sunflower, safflower, linseed etc. contain oil as reserve food in their seeds.

It must be noted that a small quantity of free fatty acid is usually present in oils along with the triglycerides. It increases during storage. The free fatty acid content of an oil is called as ‘acid number’ or ‘acid value’. The keeping quality of oil relies upon the free fatty acid content.

During germination of oilseeds, lipases play an important role in hydrolyzing the stored oils to fatty acid and glycerol. Fatty acid is metabolized to acetyl-COA, which may take part in glyoxylate cycle forming sugars from fatty acid involving the enzymes- Isocitritase and Malate Synthetase.

ABSTRACT

Biological lipids are chemically diverse group of compounds. Lipids serve two major biological roles namely a structural one as component of membrane, and storage function, particularly in certain seed tissues. Fats and oils are the principal stored form of energy in many organism, and phospholipids and sterols makeup about half of the mass of biological membranes.

An experiment was conducted to study phospholipids composition qualitatively as well as quantitatively in the roots of mung bean seedlings. Among the four solvents used for phospholipids isolation, solvent II (methanol) and solvent III (chloroform: methanol: NH₃ salt) were proved to be the major phospholipids eluting solvents. The results indicated that Phosphatidyl Choline (PC), Phosphatidyl Inositol (PI), Phosphatidyl Serine (PS), Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine (PE) and Di Phospho Glyceride (DPG) were present in significant amount in the roots of ten days old mung bean seedlings. These phospholipids were also identified by their Rf values using thin layer chromatography. Among all the phospholipids isolated, PI showed the minimum Rf value, whereas PS showed the maximum Rf value. On the basis of column chromatography, four fractions of phospholipids were isolated. The highest amount of phospholipids was found in fraction II and the lowest in fraction I. Fraction II and fraction III contained the maximum phospholipids. In the fraction II PC showed the highest content (μg g-1) and one unidentified phospholipids showed the lowest content (μg g-1), whereas in fraction III, PI showed the maximum content (μg g-1) and PS showed the minimum content (μg g-1).

The importance of lipids have already been elaborated. They play a major role as source of energy and as components of membranes which have implications in plant growth regulation. The complete metabolism of fat leads to oxidation, the final products being CO₂ and water. The burning of one mole of palmitic acid gives 2340 kcal.  The molecular weight of palmitic acid is 256. This works out to approximately 9 kcal/g of palmitic acid. This energy is twice that derived from either sugars or proteins. Fats and oils are thus better and more efficient forms of storage of energy in living beings.

Introduction

The diverse cluster of naturally occurring organic compounds including fats, oils, fatty acids, waxes, phospholipids, eicosanoids, terpenes, steroids and fat soluble vitamins that do not prefer to interact with water but soluble in non-polar organic solvents like ether, chloroform, benzene, acetone, are called as lipids. The main functions of lipids in biological system include storage and transport of metabolic fuel, structural component of cell membranes, insulation & protection of vital organs from shock and carrier of fat soluble vitamins. Contradictory to proteins,lipids are not polymers in nature and are hydrophobic due to presence of a long hydrophobic chain. Apart from this, lipids also act as precursor molecules for several pigments, hormones and signaling molecules.

Introduction

Lipid nanoparticles are composed of macromolecular materials that act as adjuvants in vaccines or drug carriers, in which the drug is either dissolved, entrapped, or encapsulated. Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) have received a great attention in drug development and cancer treatment. These nanoparticles have minimal or no toxicity and can transport both hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules and extend the duration of drug action through a prolonged half-life and controlled drug release. Liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), lipid—drug conjugates (LDCs), and lipid nano capsules are the most common types of LNPs (LNCs).

Lipids are non polar substances of biological origin that are sparingly soluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents like chloroform, hexane, benzene etc. The word lipid comes from the Greek word lipos meaning lard or fat. The lipids present in biological systems are either hydrophobic (non polar) or amphipathic (both polar and non polar). Lipids like fats, oils or glycerophospholipids can be hydrolyzed to get fatty acids and other products. Hydrophobic nature is useful in making lipids as membranes which act as effective barriers to more polar molecules. Steroids are also considered lipids, but cannot be hydrolysed and are components of non-saponifiables in fats. Waxes, which are esters of fatty acids with long chain alcohols are also considered as lipids.

Lipids are a class of organic compounds composed of hydrogen (H), carbon (C), and oxygen (O) atoms. These classes of biomolecules come together to create the fundamental building blocks that shape and govern the structure and functionality of living cells. The term lipid was used by the German biochemist Wilhem Bloor in 1943. Lipids are heterogeneous groups of substances that are insoluble in polar (water) and soluble in non-polar (ether, benzene, and chloroform) solvents. Lipids are the esters of fatty acids and their derivatives. Lipids play a crucial role in both the plant and animal domains. They are widely distributed in plants, but lipids are primarily stored in animal adipose tissues.

Classification of lipids

Lipids are classified into four different groups, as shown below:

1. Simple lipids

2. Complex lipids

3. Derived lipids and

4. Miscellaneous lipids

Lipids are a hetrogenous group of substances, widely distributed throughout the plant and animal kingdom. In plants they are present in the seeds nuts and fruits, while in the animals they are stored in adipose tissues, bone marrow and nervous tissues. Lipids are relatively insoluble in water and readily soluble in organic solvents such as ether, chloroform, carbon disulfide, benzene, hot alcohol etc. The term lipid was used by the German biochemist Bloor in 1943 for a major class of tissue components and foodstuffs.

1.    A lipid is

(a) Insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents

(b) Insoluble in both water and nonpolar solvents

(b) Soluble in water but insoluble in nonpolar solvents

(d) None of the above

2.    Fats are

(a) Esters of fatty acid with glycerol

(b) Esters of fatty acid with long chain monohydroxy alcohols

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) Esters of fatty acid with alcohols

Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signalling, and acting as structural components of cell membrane. Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology.

Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles, liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment. Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or “building-blocks”: ketoacyl and isoperen groups. Using this approach, lipids may be divided into eight categories:fatty acids, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, saccharolipids and polyketides (derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits); and sterol lipids and prenol lipids (derived from condensation of isoprene subunits).

Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides. Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives (including tri-, di-, monoglycerides and phospholipids), as well as other sterol containing metabolites such as chloestrol. Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways to both break down and synthesize lipids, some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet.

Lipoma is a benign tumor of adipocytes and it is more common in dogs and mostly observed in the trunk, thigh and proximal limbs with rare presence of ulceration.

Liposarcoma is a rare malignant tumor of adipocytes in dogs. Grossly, the neoplastic cells are arranged in less circumscribed to large firm to hard (Figure 67) nodules on the dermis and the nodules noticed on the subcutis are grey white in color.

Introduction
The term “drug delivery systems” (DDSs) describes sophisticated dose forms that are utilized in the management of illness. The idea behind the design is to deliver the right quantity of medication to the diseased locations at the right time in order to maximize therapeutic efficacy while minimizing negative effects. The “3R” delivery principle—right dose, right place, and right time—is a concise way to describe it. Drug delivery technology can increase a candidate’s draggability while also enhancing the potency and safety of the medication. For example, liposomal drug delivery methods can be used to address issues with poor solubility and significant side toxicity in a variety of medications. The hazardous side effects of conventional chemotherapy medications can be greatly decreased by employing liposomal technology, which increases patient compliance (Andresen et al., 2004). Liposomes are the most widely used and researched nanocarrier for targeted medication delivery. They have improved therapies for a range of biomedical applications by stabilizing medicinal molecules, eliminating obstacles to cellular and tissue absorption, and boosting the biodistribution of compounds to specific locations in vivo. One or more concentric lipid bilayers enclosing discrete aqueous zones are described as the features of phospholipid vesicles, also known as liposomes. Due to the unique ability of liposomal systems to ensnape both lipophilic and hydrophilic molecules, a broad range of pharmaceuticals can be stored within these vesicles. Hydrophilic molecules may become trapped in the aqueous center of the bilayer membrane when hydrophobic molecules are introduced into it (Antohe et al., 2004).
There are many potentials uses for liposomes, and some recent reviews have offered useful details. In order to address the ongoing demand for the R&D of novel liposomal medications, significant efforts must be done. There are still some unanswered questions in this field. This article will summarize technological advancements, address issues, and explore the future of pharmaceutical liposomal delivery by focusing on three key areas: effective application, overcoming obstacles, and the move from idea to clinical application (Allen et al., 2013). Additionally, because of the large aqueous center and biocompatible lipid exterior, a variety of macromolecules, including as DNA, proteins, and imaging agents, can be administered.
Liposomes are a drug delivery technique that have several advantages, including biocompatibility, the capability to self-assemble, a large drug payload, and a range of physicochemical and biophysical properties that may be modified to control their biological features (Allen, 1994).
Among the features that characterize liposomal formulations and ascertain their durability in vitro and in vivo are particle size, charge, lamellar number, lipid content, and surface modification with polymers and ligands. Encapsulated compounds are protected from dilution, degradation, and early inactivation in the circulation by liposomes. Liposomes are generally believed to be low toxicity and pharmacologically inactive because they are frequently composed of phospholipids that occur naturally. But more and more studies are showing that liposomes are not as immunologically inactive as was once thought. Although liposomal formulations have demonstrated efficacy in vivo, their clinical translation has been gradual. The advancements, biological difficulties, biomedical uses, and translational barriers of liposomal technology will all be covered in this review (Dams et al., 2000).

9.1 Introduction

Biomass conversion is a transformative process that harnesses the energy and chemical potential of organic materials derived from living organisms. It encompasses various methods of converting biomass, including agricultural residues, forestry by-products, algae, and even waste materials, into valuable products such as biofuels, chemicals, and energy. This process is a cornerstone of sustainable resource utilization and plays a critical role in addressing environmental concerns, reducing reliance on fossil fuels, and promoting a circular economy. Biomass conversion methods range from biochemical processes like fermentation and anaerobic digestion to thermochemical processes such as combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, and liquefaction. Each method employs distinct conditions, catalysts, and technologies to break down complex biomass structures and convert them into desired products.

The earlier products of bio-fertilizers were carrier (solid) based where lignite is usually added as a carrier material. Lignite is hazardous to the production workers. Also, the shelf life of carrier based bio-fertilizers is only 6 months and is difficult to transport. Liquid Biofertilizers (LBFs) on the other hand have a shelf life of minimum one year, with no health hazards to production workers and are easy to transport. Additionally, LBF can be used in drip irrigation and as a component of organic farming. The liquid Bio fertilizers are suspensions having agriculturally useful microorganisms, which fix atmospheric nitrogen and solubilize insoluble phosphates and make it available for the plants. The use of this biofertilizer is environment friendly and gives uniform results for most of the agricultural crops and directly reduces the use of chemical fertilizer by 15 to 40%. The shelf life of the liquid bio fertilizer is higher (in the range of one to two years) compared to that of solid matrix base biofertilizer.

3.1 Definition

Liquid biofertilizers are liquid formulation containing the dormant form of desired microorganisms and their nutrients along with the substances that encourage formation of resting spores or cysts for longer shelf life and tolerance to adverse conditions. The dormant form on reaching the soil, germinate to produce fresh batch of active cells. These cells grow and multiply by utilizing the carbon source in the soil or from root exudates.

“A preparation comprising requirements to preserve organisms and deliver them to the target regions to improve their biological activity” or “A consortium of micro-organisms provided with suitable medium to keep up their viability for certain period which aids in enhancing the biological activity of the target site”.

14.1 Introduction

The green revolution brought amazing consequences in food grain production but with insufficient concern for agricultural sustainability. The availability and affordability of fossil fuel based chemical fertilizers at farm level in India have been ensured only through imports and subsidies which are largely dependent on GDP of the country. Dependence on chemicals for future agricultural needs would result in further loss in soil health, possibilities of water contamination and calculated burden on the fiscal system. Indiscriminate synthetic fertilizer usage has polluted the soil, water basins, destroyed micro-organisms and eco-friendly insects, made the crop more susceptible to diseases and depleted soil fertility at the primary levels as of today (Pindi, 2012). India is an agricultural based country.