eChapters

1.1. Livestock breeds

Denotes and established group of animals / birds having the similar general body shape, colour, structure and characters which produced offspring with same characters.

1.1. Cattle

1. Indigenous breeds

Milch: Sindhi, Sahiwal, Gir and Deoni

Dual: Hariana, Ongole, Tharparkar, Kankrej

Draught: Kangayam, Umblachery, Amritmahal, Hallikar

Introduction

Animal waste or manures are the solid, semisolid, and liquid generated by the animals reared for the diverse aims such as production of milk, meat eggs and for other agricultural work. Animal wastes comprises of faeces urine, bedding materials (straw, sawdust, rice hulls), and other materials associated with animal production, such as leftover feed, soil, wash waters and any chemical or physical amendments used during manure handling and storage. An adult bovine weighing 400 kg approximately discharge 15-20 kg dung and 15-20 liters urine per day. The dung produced is discharged from the farm leads to the clogging of drainage pipes and act as a breeding site for the mosquitoes. Additionally, the animal manure contains a wide range of microorganism which can be hazardous to the health of humans and animal. These microorganisms can contaminate food, epidemics and risk to the public health. Contrary to this animal manure are eco-friendly source of plant nutrition to enrich & restore soil nutrients, conserve the micro-fauna of soil and act as a natural surface purifier. Dung manure contains basic elements critical to plant health i.e., nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) and several micro nutrients. Also, animal manure imparts beneficial qualities to the soil such as improves the physical and biological properties of soil, improves aeration and thus enhance the water holding capacity. However, in recent pass it has been observed that a lot problem of environment arises due to nitrates present in manure connected with irrational use of natural fertilizers used in the agriculture land. The natural fertilizers contain large quantity of organic nitrogen which coverts in to inorganic form through the process of mineralization and possess a serious risk to the environment. In addition to this the nitrogen may leach to the ground and surface water as compared to chemical fertilizer.

Abstract

India is an agriculture based country and livestock production is an integral component of farming system and it is generally considered a key asset for rural livelihoods. It offers advantages over other agricultural sectors and it plays a crucial role in the rural economies of developing countries like India. Livestock provide high quality food, cash income and employment. Livestock production is largely in the hands of women. Most of the animal farming activities such as fodder collection, feeding, watering, and health care, management, milking and household-level processing, value addition and marketing are performed by women. Besides, considerable involvement and contribution of women, gender inequalities also exist in Indian villages. Therefore, there is a need to correct gender bias in livestock sector. Efforts are needed to increase the capacity of women to negotiate with confidence and meet their strategic needs.

Aim: To determine the Load characteristics (External characteristics) of self excited D.C. shunt generator.

If a dc shunt generator, after building up to its voltage, were loaded, its terminal voltage will drop. This drop increases if load increases. But this type of terminal drop is undesirable for a specified service. The relation between terminal voltage and load current is called external characteristics. Speed is to be kept constant. Reason for voltage drop:

Aim

(a) Perform load test on 3-phase induction motor.

(b) Compute Torque, Output power, Input power, Efficiency, Input power factor and Slip for every load setting and to determine how speed, efficiency, power factor, stator current torque, and slip of an induction motor vary with load.

The load test on induction motor is performed to compute its complete performance i.e. torque, slip, efficiency, power factor etc. During this test, the motor is operated at rated voltage and frequency and normally loaded mechanically by brake and pulley arrangement from the observed data, the performance can be calculated, following the steps given below.

Local Anesthetic Techniques of Head Region
The following nerves can be blocked in the head region for performing surgery.
    1.    Cornual nerve block 
    2.    Peterson’s orbital nerve block 
    3.    Auriculopalpebral nerve block 
    4.    Supra orbital nerve block 
    5.    Infra orbital nerve block 
    6.    Retro bulbar nerve block 
    7.    Mental nerve block 
    8.    Maxillary nerve block 
    9.    Mandibulo alveolar nerve block 

These are the drugs that reversibly block the propagation of action potentials along nerve axons. General anesthesia may be advantageous where complete immobilization and relaxation of the patients required. However, local anesthetic techniques are advantageous for providing surgical anesthesia in animals that are considered at risk for inhalant or intravenous anesthesia. These drugs are injected directly at the target site.

ABSTRACT

The Indian false vampire bat, Megaderma lyra detects and captures prey (e.g. frogs) mainly by listening to the rustling sounds that are created when the prey is on ground. In addition, echolocation and vision are also involved. Mothers of M. lyra take meticulous care of their young. At the age of about seven weeks, juveniles exhibit gleaning flights. Among eight mother-young pairs, four young (group A) began to capture frogs at the age of 62 days

3.1 Introduction

Different types of farm ponds with their characteristics features are discussed in this Chapter. It is observed that farm ponds can be constructed at different sites starting from the plain areas with relatively flat slopes to valley terrain having steep slopes. The choice of a particular type of pond largely depends on the kind of water supply available and on the existing topography of the site selected. In general for valleys with bottom width less than 100 m, barrage ponds may work well whereas valleys with bottom width more than 100 m, diversion ponds find suitable.

3.2 Collection of Basic Information

Basic information on different data relating to the soil, climate, plant, topography, groundwater table, catchment characteristics, and livestock populations are to be collected for the area where pond has to be constructed. Estimation of water supply from different sources and water demand form the pond for various purposes are to be done and a pond water balance study needs to be done before designing a pond in a particular place.

16.1 Introduction

Fish are primarily designed to swim in the water. Their fusiform body allows for efficient swimming. Swimming is the most cost-effective mode of fish locomotion because fish bodies are supported by water and thus do not require energy to counter gravity. To swim, a fish uses its fins. The caudal fin is primarily used for propulsion, while the remaining fins are used for balance control and f ine maneuvering. However, some Plectognathi fish (Trunk-fish, Parrot-fish, Butterfly-fish, Porcupine-fish, and Trigger-fish, among others) have lost their ability to swim using body flexure and can only move with their other fins.

Locusts are injurious to man as it destroys several human commodities. Locusts are phytophagous and feed on several plants cultivated by man. The locusts are insects belonging to the order orthoptera. The most popular insect is grasshopper. The only difference between the two types of insects is that locust can exist in two different behavioural states whereas grasshoppers do not. When the population density is low locusts behave as individuals, much like grasshopper. As the population density is high locusts gregariously behave as band of nymphs or swarms of adults. The changes in body shape and colour and in fertility, survial and migratory behaviour are accompanied by phase change. The most important locust species is the desert locust (Schistocerca-gregaria). The international pest influences various parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. Other locust species are highly injurious to mainkind like Bombay locust and Indian migratory locust (Locusta- migratoria) found all over India in its solitary phase. The monsoon months in July and August suitable are for locust multiplication conditions. The new generation produced migrate eastward into the Indian desert areas in May and June.

Logical Framework Approach (LFA) Background and Description, Variation of LFA

Definition The Logical Framework Approach or LFA is a systematic and analytical process for objectives-oriented project planning and management

Background: The Logical Framework Approach (LFA) was developed for USAID in the 1960s. Since then, it has been adopted and adapted by many other international development organisations. Among them was the German agency GTZ, which derived its Goal-Oriented Project Planning (ZOPP) from it.

Introduction to LFA – Background and description
The Logical Framework Approach (LFA) is a methodology mainly used for designing, monitoring, and evaluating international development projects. Variations of this tool are known as Goal Oriented Project Planning (GOPP) or Objectives Oriented Project Planning (OOPP). The logical framework Approach is a method to develop the project’s goals and activities and identify key information (such as risks) through a participatory approach. Basically, this means that instead of having a single person who designs the project all on his own, you seek the involvement of all concerned parties – also known as the stakeholders. The most important stakeholders are the potential beneficiaries of the project, or the target group.Getting the involvement of your target group and other stakeholders not only ensures that your project is well designed. It also makes sure that everybody is aware of the project and what it is supposed to change. It allows people to get involved, and develop a feeling of responsibility for the project and its results.This is known as developing ownership for the project’s outcomes, and it is important to make sure that the positive realizations of the project are embedded locally and durable over time. People will care about the project and take care about its results.

Evaluation is a systematic process of determining the merit, worth, effectiveness and value of a programme through the collection, analysis and interpretation of relevant information. In agricultural extension, evaluation provides a structured basis for understanding whether programmes are achieving their intended objectives and how their implementation can be improved. This chapter introduces the fundamental concepts, purposes, types and criteria of programme evaluation and explains its role in accountability, decision-making, learning and programme development. It discusses formative and summative evaluation and examines approaches such as objective-based, process-oriented, theory-based and participatory evaluation. The chapter also introduces important principles governing credible evaluation, including impartiality, independence, transparency, competency, participation and pragmatism. Particular attention is given to the role, competencies and credibility of evaluators. Theories of evaluation, programme theory, social science theory, Utilization-Focused Evaluation, Values-Engaged Evaluation, Empowerment Evaluation and Theory-Driven Evaluation are also examined, providing a theoretical foundation for evidence-based agricultural extension evaluation.

Logical Framework Approach (LFA) is a framework for designing change process, monitoring progress and evaluating impact. It is a powerful tool for project design, management, assessment, follow up and evaluation of projects. In designing change process, monitoring progress and evaluating impact, ordering the change process in a logical sequence where inputs or resources identify as necessary means for performing activities are very important. Specific activities are then identified because they result in outputs which are necessary to achieve objectives. The two terms i.e.; log frame and logical framework approach are sometimes confused by many. The log frame is a document whereas the logical framework approach is a project design methodology. LFA originally developed by the American Defense Department and was first formally adopted as a planning tool for United State Agency for International Development (USAID) by the end of 1960’s and today it is being used, in one form or other and with different names, by major organisations in the field of development co-operation and private industry. Among these are British DFID, the OECD expert group on Aid Evaluation, ISNAR International Service for National Agricultural Research, Germany’s GTZ and the Inter-American Development Bank. It has also been widely adopted by NGOs, though not without reservations and concerns by some. In the 1990s it was often mandatory for aid organisations to use the LFA in their project proposals.

Plant family    :    Apiaceae
Synonyms      
English    :     Puerto Rican  Coriander, Black Benny, Saw leaf herb, Mexican coriander, Saw tooth coriander, Spiny coriander, Fitweed
Hindi    :    Bhandhania,Bhandhanya
Sanskrit    :    Phiranga
Kannada    :    Paramgi

Origin and Distribution

The plant is native to the Caribbean islands occuring from S.Mexico to Panama, Columbia, Bolivia, Brazil and Cuba to Trinidad. It was introduced to many tropical and subtriopical countries  where it is used as a substitute for coriander.

Long Pepper or Pipli is the dried fruit of Piper longum, which is a slender, aromatic climber with perennial woody roots, occurring in the hotter parts of India, from the Central Himalayas to Assam, Khasi, and Mikir hills and Lower Hills of Bengal, and evergreen forests of the Western Ghats from Konkan to Travancore in Kerala State, India; it has also been recorded from Nicobar Islands. The plant has creeping jointed stems; young shoots are downy; leaves are 5-9 cm long, 3.5 mm wide, ovate, cordate, with broad rounded lobes at the base; female spikes are cylindrical, pedunculate, male spikes are larger and slender; female spikes are 1.3-2.5 cm long and 4.5 mm in diameter; fruits are ovoid; yellowish orange, minute, droop and are sunk in fleshy spike. The female spikes are sharper, sessile and blunt at the tips and erect, are red when ripe; flowers are numerous and packed. Indian Long Pepper is mostly derived from the wild plants, the main sources of supply being Assam State in India, followed by West Bengal, Nepal and Uttar Pradesh. Small quantities are also available from evergreen forests of Kerala State, West Bengal and certain parts of Andhra Pradesh. It is reported to be cultivated at lower elevations in the Annamalai hills in Tamil Nadu, India, and in parts of Assam, in particular, the heaviest (in India) rainfall region, Cherrapunji. It is cultivated in Meghalaya also; India produced about 200 tonnes in 1990-91. The Long pepper, as sold in India, appears to be derived from 2 or 3 species, including one which is Indonesian. Indian Long Pepper is a product of either Piper longum or Piper peepuloides, while the Indonesian or Java Long Pepper imported from Malayasia is from Piper retrofractum. The fruits of these species are used for the same purpose, though they do vary in their comparative effectiveness.

Scientific name: Piper longum L.
Family: Piperaceae
Piper longum, commonly known as long pepper, is a flowering vine native to the tropical regions of India, Southeast Asia, and Sri Lanka. It has been used for centuries in traditional medicine, particularly in Ayurveda and Unani systems, for its numerous health benefits. The plant is characterized by its slender stems, heart-shaped leaves, and spikes of small flowers. The fruit of the plant, a small, elongated berry, is the part commonly used for medicinal and culinary purposes.
Origin and distribution
The plant is native to South and Southeast Asia. The wild type of Piper longum is mainly found in Kerala, Assam, West Bengal, Nepal, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and the North East region. The plant is cultivated in various parts of India, including Bengal, Assam, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, and Meghalaya. Piper longum naturally occurs in the central Himalayas to Assam, Khasi and Mikir hills, and the evergreen forests of Western Ghats from Konkan to Kanyakumari and Nicobar Island.

Conservation of released varieties requires a sound scientific and technical basis. There are two main strategies for conserving agricultural biodiversity, namely ex-situ and in-situ conservation, both of which are equally important. In-situ conservation refers to the maintenance of a species in its natural habitat. Exsitu conservation is the conservation of components of biodiversity outside their natural habitats. It is conserved in the form of seeds (seed gene bank), live plants (field gene bank), tissues (tissue gene bank), pollens (pollen gene bank) and DNA materials (DNA bank). 

The experimental design and analysis discussed in previous chapters refer essentially to experiments on annual crops. Even when these experiments are repeated in different years, this is done at a new site each year .The use of new crop production practices will generally change the important physical and biological factors of the environment. This process of change can take many years. Generally, the productivity of some types of technology must be evaluated by a series of trials repeated over time. Such trials are generally referred to as long-term experiments. Long-term experiments are those which are continued on the same set of plots over a series of years with a pre-planned sequence of treatments or crops or both. Treatments may be applied every year or periodically. The same crop may be repeated year after year or once planted may continue for several years as perennial trees ,or a sequence of crops may be grown in rotation as for instance rice-rice or rice-wheat (1 year sequence with 2 crops per year ) or sorghum,groundnut,cotton and wheat, each crop cycle being completed in four years. The main features of long-term experiments are as follows :