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Maize (Zea mays L.), the “Queen of Cereals” is one of the most important highly evolved coarse cereal crop originated at Mexico. This is most widely distributed crop of the world cultivated predominantly in tropics and sub-tropics right from sea level to 4000 m altitude as irrigated or rainfed crop. The demand for maize as an animal feed will continue to grow faster than the demand for its use as a human food, particularly in Asia, where, doubling of production is expected from the present level of 165 m t to almost 400 mt.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third most important crop of country after rice and wheat and is cultivated round the year. Its grain is used as feed, food and industrial raw material. Enormous progress has been made during last six decades to enhance yield potential through genetic improvement and alleviate effects due to various biotic and abiotic-stresses. In India, it is an important crop not only in terms of acreage but also in context to its versatility for adoption under wide range of agro-climatic conditions. Of the different forms used for human consumption, 45% is consumed as staple food in various forms viz., bread, biscuits, cookies or transformed into corn flakes, soups, fresh-roasted sweets, boiled cobs and vegetables etc. Maize grain is main ration for poultry birds while forage maize is used as fresh or dry fodder for dairy industries. In Rajasthan maize occupies 0.89 m ha area with an annual production of 1.55 mt and productivity of 1.74 t/ha (Govt of Rajasthan, 2015). Being major Kharif crop in Rajasthan, the productivity levels of maize are still below the national average and farmers are not getting better economic returns. However, profitability can be accelerated further by growing recently popular speciality corns.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third most important grain crop in India after rice and wheat with respect to area and production. It has wide ecological adaptability and is grown in almost all parts of the country extending from extreme semi-arid to sub-humid and humid regions. The crop is also popular in low and mid-hill areas of Western and North Eastern regions. It has the highest yield potential and used as human food, animal feed and as a source of large number of industrial by-products. Hence, it is called as “Queen of cereals”. In India, about 59% of the total production is used as feed, while the remaining is used as industrial raw material (17%), food (10%), exports (10%), and other purposes (4%).

Tamil Nadu has a total geographical area of 13 million hectares with a coastal line of 922 km and is endowed with 3 per cent of water resources of the country. Out of 13 million hectares of geographical area, the cultivable area in Tamil Nadu is around 7 million hectares and 55 per cent of which is dryland. The State has gross irrigated area of 33.94 lakh ha out of which 79% is under food crops and 21% is under non-food crops. In Tamil Nadu, maize was grown in an area of 0.14 lakh ha during 1970-71 with the annual production of 0.16 lakh tonnes, mainly concentrated in Tanjore, Pudukkottai and Trichy districts. Due to rapid increase in the demand of maize for poultry and animal feed, industrial uses and introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids, the area under maize has gone up to 3.8 lakh ha with the production of 22.45 lakh tonnes during 2013-14. The major maize growing districts are Perambalur, Tuticorin, Dindigul, Erode, Karur, Ariyalur, Salem and Southern districts of Tamil Nadu. The demand and production of maize is increasing more rapidly as compared to other major commodities. It is estimated that the demand for maize will continue to increase in coming days (Yadav et al., 2016). Thus, in the next 10 years there is a necessity and opportunity for doubling India’s maize production from the current level of approximately 26 million MT.

Uttar Pradesh, a fourth largest state of India geographically, where agriculture is a prime occupation and this is the traditional maize growing state, accounts 7.7% of area and 5.4 percent of total maize production of the country with an average yield of 1791 kg/ha (IIMR Annual Progress Report, Kharif Maize 2015). Maize is mainly taken as a Kharif crop but, gradually Rabi maize is gaining popularity with the availability of high yielding varieties and advanced production technologies. The rice, wheat, potato, sugarcane based cropping is more popular, and maize is given a moderate priority. The current level of growth in productivity definitely fall short to meet the demand of rapidly growing population even it may increase the poverty, unless vigorous measures are taken to accelerate yield, growth, employment generation, increasing the income of farming family and ultimately targeting for the sustainable climate resilient maize production.

Maize is mainly used as a staple food and quality feed for animals. In addition to that it also serves as a basic raw material for several industries like, starch, oil, protein, alcoholic beverages, food sweeteners, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic, textile, gum, package, paper etc. A major portion of the maize produce is directly consumed as a food in the form of boiled or roasted green ears, chapattis, porridges of various forms, popcorn, cornflakes etc. and as livestock feed viz., cattle, poultry and piggery both in

the form of grain and fodder The central rachis of maize cob, to which the grains are attached remains as an agricultural waste after threshing, has many important agricultural and industrial uses. It is approximately 15 to 18% of the total ear weight and contains 35% cellulose, 40% pentose and 15% lignin (used as a raw material in cardboards). Its uses in agriculture includes as a litter for poultry and as a soil conditioner.

Maize is an important crop of Uttarakhand and is cultivated in about 22 thousand ha in both hills and plains. The crop is grown for food, feed and fodder and forms an integral constituent of all major cropping systems prevalent in the state. Kharif (June-September) is the main grown season in the hills, whereas in the foothills and tarai plains, the crop is grown during zaid (Feb-May) as well. The crop is grown broadly for two different end products – grain and green ears. In areas where maize forms staple diet, the crop is grown for grain, whereas in areas adjoining/en route popular tourist destinations and towns, the crop is grown mainly for green ears. The crop is also gaining importance as an industrial crops following establishment of maize processing industry in the state.

The major maize growing districts of the state are Dehradun, Nainital, Pithoragarh, Pauri, Tehri and Almora (Fig. 1), which together comprise about 90% of total

West Bengal is the fifth largest state in terms of (GSDP) Gross State Domestic Product after Maharastra, UP, TN and AP and is the third largest contributor in agriculture sector of real GDP. West Bengal has 3% of India land mass and 8% population with population density of 1029 per km².

Agriculture accounts for about 17% (2013-14) GSDP and provides employment to over 55% of workers. About 64% of the geographical area of West Bengal is under cultivation. There is little scope for further increase the current cultivable area. Because it is difficult to maintain the growth rate in the absence of adequate infrastructure support, crop diversification and market access.

Food production remained stagnant as the green revolution by-passed the state. However, there has been a significant increase in food production since 1980’s and the state is now one of the few Indian states with a surplus in food production, producing nearly 20% of the rice and 33% of potato. Agriculture accounts the largest share of the labour force. Rice, potato, jute, sugarcane and wheat are the top five crops of the state, while other major food crops include maize, pulses, oilseeds, wheat, barley and vegetables. In recent years, significant changes have occurred in maize production and utilization due to increasing commercial orientation of maize crop and rising demand for diversified end users, specially for feed and industrial uses. A sizable number of districts in West Bengal have potential for growing winter maize. Though maize favourably responds to better crop management both in Kharif and Rabi season, the erratic rainfall pattern of the south-west monsoon comes in the way of timely field operations of Kharif season. In absence of any major environmental impediments in Rabi, the desired field operations can be planned and executed at the most desired time. Moreover, the various environmental factors including absence of any major disease and insect pests in this season, helps in realizing the better profits from every additional unit of monetary inputs. Hence, future of Rabi maize in West Bengal is bright.

Maize (Zea mays L., 2n=20) is a cereal crop that is grown widely in more than 165 countries in a range of agro-ecological environments. Even in Asia, the rapid increase in maize acreage in the last decade is an indication that it is winning the battle as compared with rice. The Asian region will see itself as a major global player in the near term. In the past it was mainly confined to food in India and many other countries however, now it has become the industrial crop. Maize has several industrial applications and more than 1000 products are being developed from maize in India and around 3500 products in USA and other countries. It is a raw material for many of the important industries viz. pharma, textile, paper, film, tyre food, processing, packing and biofuel, etc. The growth rate of poultry, livestock, fish, wet and dry milling industries are very high therefore, maize demand will continue to increase in year to come.

Global Maize Scenario

Globally, maize is primarily used as feed livestock and has many industrial uses; however in many developing countries it is still used as a food crop. Small-scale farmers in both sub-Saharan Africa and Mesoamerica generally grow maize as a food crop for household consumption and for saline urban markets. Maize is particularly important in the diets of the rural and urban poor in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Globally, maize is grown in 165 countries in a total of 185.1 million hectares area with 1018.1 million tones of production and 5.52 tonnes/ha productivity (Anonymous 2015-16). Almost 70% of the total maize production in the developing world is coming from low and lower middle income countries. In Asia, maize has recorded the fastest annual growth (around 4%), as compared to other cereals. Maximum maize production was in USA (353.7 million tonnes) followed by China (218.6 million tonnes) and Brazil (80.3 million tonnes) (Fig. 1), while the area under maize cultivation was in China (36.3 million hectare) followed by USA (35.5 million hectare) and Brazil (15.3 million hectare) (Fig. 2). The average world maize productivity is 5500 kg/ha, but the highest productivity of maize was achieved in USA (9970 kg/ha) followed by Canada (9591 kg/ha) and France (8137 kg/ha) (Fig. 3).

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ crop is known as the Queen of cereals.
2. Maize is a _____ pollinated crop.
3. Male inflorescence of maize is known as_____.
4. Female inflorescence of maize is known as_____.
5. Pollen viability in maize crop is_____.
6. Silk receptivity in maize crop is _____.
7. Isolation distance for maize certified seed production is_____.

Maize or corn (Zea mays, 2n = 2x = 20, Family Gramineae now called as Poaceae, cross-pollinated crop) is produced more than any other grain crop globally. In the Western world, the term maize is used interchangeably with corn. The reason for this is that all grains were called corn under early British and American trade and the name was retained for maize because it was the most common grain in commerce. Although the origin of the word maize is also controversial, it is generally accepted that the word has its origin in Arawac tribes of the indigenous people of the Caribbean. On the basis of this common name, Linnaeus included the name as species epithet in the botanical classification Zea (Zea mays L.) as reported by Smith (2001).

AIR POLLUTION FROM AUTO EXHAUST

Motor vehicles are the major source of a number of pollutants, in particular carbon monoxide (CO),nitrogen oxides (NOx), unburnt hydrocarbons (HC),ozone (O3) and other photo chemical oxidants and lead (Pb) and, in smaller proportions Total Suspended Particulate Matter (TSPM), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and volatile organic compounds.

The great vessels that leave and enter the chambers of the heart include the Aorta, the Pulmonary Artery and the Pulmonary Veins.

Aorta

The Aorta is the main systemic arterial trunk. It begins as ascending aorta at the base of the left ventricle, passes craniad and dorsad between the pulmonary artery on the left and the right atrium on the right and then turns caudad inclining slightly to the left, thus describing a curve called the aortic arch with its convexity directed upward and forward and the concavity facing downward and backward. From here it proceeds caudad on the ventrolateral surface of the thoracic vertebrae and the longus colli muscle as the descending aorta. At its origin from the base of left ventricle, the caliber of the aorta is greatest forming the bulbus aorta and here it presents three dilatations called the aortic sinuses. As the descending aorta reaches the level of the seventh thoracic vertebra it continues behind as thoracic aorta running through the middle and caudal mediastinum between the left and right lungs. The thoracic aorta first lies to the left of the median plane and then gradually inclines inwards medially and becomes median in position when it reaches to the diaphragm. It then passes through the hiatus aorticus of the diaphragm and enter the abdominal cavity as abdominal aorta. From here it passes caudad below the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae and the psoas major muscle. After reaching at the level of the sixth lumbar vertebra, the abdominal aorta terminates in the iliac quadrification by dividing into two external and two internal iliac arteries.

SYNOPSIS

Vegetables are essential for well-balanced diet since they supply phytonutriceuticals. About 3 billion people in the world are malnourished due to imbalanced diets. Regular consumption of a vegetable rich diet has undeniable effects on health since they have been strongly associated with improvement of gastrointestinal health, good vision, and reduced risk of heart disease, stroke, chronic diseases such as diabetes, and some forms of cancer.

Diseases are often the most important constraint to the production of different fruit crops. They directly or indirectly reduce yields by debilitating the plant, and depleting the fruit quality. They range from aesthetic problems that lower the marketability of the harvested product to lethal problems that devastate the overall production. Virtually all fruit crops are affected by one or more serious diseases. Diseases determine how and where a crop is produced, what postharvest treatments are utilized, in what markets the crops are sold, and whether production is sustainable and profitable. Hence, as a fruit crop student one should know have the knowledge of different diseases occurring on major fruit crops, their symptoms and management strategies;

The biofertilizer technology has paved way for the manufacturers and entrepreuners to establish a biofertilizer production unit due to an increasing demand and awareness among farmers. Biofertilizer production units have already been started with most of them in the southern states of India. The biofertilizers can be produced using different kinds of carrier materials (peat, coal, lignite, clays, inorganic soil), organic materials (composts, soybean meal, wheat bran, sawdust, etc.), or inert materials (e.g., vermiculite, perlite, kaolin, bentonite, silicates). Natural carriers like peat, plant waste materials, composts, sawdust, sludge lignite, clays, coal, vermiculite, perlite and bentonite and mixture of organic and inorganic materials may also be used.

The Government of India is also encouraging a low cost technology by providing a subsidy to establish a biofertilizer production unit . The major equipment’s and other materials required for a biofertilizer production unit with the capacity of 150 metric tonnes/annum are given below

Colouring Agents
Colouring agents are called as pigments. Tissues may be discoloured (e.g. 
Jaundice, tattoo) or excessively coloured (e.g. Melanosis) in diseases.
Origin
• External or exogenous pigments
• Internal or endogenous pigments
Exogenous Pigmentations
In exogenous pigmentations colouring substances can enter the body by three different routes.
• Respiratory route by inhalation
• Alimentary route by ingestion
• Cutaneous route by injection

Major Histocompetibility Complex (MHC) is a closely linked cluster of genes which have codes for cell surface proteins known as MHC molecules. MHC molecules were previously called as HLA molecules. Since these molecules were first discovered on the leucocytes, these were called human leukocyte antigen or HLA molecules.

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is a closely linked cluster of genes which have codes for cell surface proteins known as  MHC molecules. These molecules have very important role in presentation of processed antigens to the T cells in initiation of an immune response as T cells recognize an antigen only when it is presented along with MHC molecule. These are highly polymorphic and are the major barrier to organ/tissue transplantation. All vertebrates have MHC. MHC differs among members of a species and are thus called alloantigens. MHC participates in the development of both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses.

Major International Treaties Related to IPR & TRIPS

There are different forms of intellectual property like Patents, Copyright, Trademarks, Industrial design, Plant Varieties etc. Various meeting and conventions were also convened for the protection in these intellectual properties at international level from time to time and to bring uniformity and coordination among member countries. These were reflected in different treaties, which are mentioned below. Among all these treaties/conventions the agreement on Trade related aspects of intellectual property rights (TRIPS), which runs under aegis of World Trade Organization is most influential, comprehensive and inclusive of all.

Definition

• Aetiology is defined as study of causation of disease.

Classification of Causes

• There are several agents or factors that can produce diseases in animals and can originate from within the body (intrinsic) or outside the body. (extrinsic).

Causes are classified into two categories

1. Predisposing causes (Intrinsic/Endogenous factors)

2. Definitive causes (Extrinsic/Exogenous factors)

Predisposing Causes

• Make the animal susceptible to definitive causes.

Among subtropical fruit crops mango, guava, bael and aonla are among the most important ones. The productivity of these crops is affected by many factors, among which diseases have their own economic significance. The crops use to suffer from a large number of diseases, however, economically important diseases having significance in agro-advisory are mentioned below.
Mango Wilt and Decline
The mango wilt disease caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata is one of the most devastating diseases (Shukla et al., 2015, 2018b, 2020; Shukla, 2020). Association of Berkeleomyces basicola and Lasidiplodia theobromae in wilt, decline and branch drying has also been observed. Symptoms: Ceratocystis infection on the trees causes dark staining of the affected wood, exudation of gum, leaf drying and ultimately death of the tree (Al Adawi et al., 2003; Shukla et al., 2018b). Later symptoms include vascular discolouration beneath the gummosis (Masood et al., 2008; Shukla et al., 2018b). The symptoms may appear in the form of sudden wilt, decline or branch drying and accordingly the whole tree or branch may die within a period of a fortnight to six months of appearance of first symptom.

Abstract
The western Himalayan region is rich in a variety of natural resources owing to the existence of a range of biophysical and climatic interactions. Mountain inhabitants have been living in harmony with these natural resources for generations to meet their subsistence needs out of these resources.  However, recent decades have witnessed a substantial imbalance between man and nature that has adversely affected the livelihood of native people. Several anthropogenic and natural factors are responsible for this change. Furthermore, the exposure of mountain societies to outside world has opened up a number of new livelihood options based on both natural resources and other forms of human capital. The local people have adopted some livelihood practices suiting to the changed conditions at the expense of the age-old agri-silvi-pastoral mode of livelihood. There is an emerging challenge for policy makers and planners to make developmental interventions and tailor made livelihood options suiting to the changed scenario. Several government and non-government organizations and other agencies initiated a number of programmes that focus on natural resource management vis-à-vis livelihood improvement in the region. However, for want of cause and effect analysis many of these programmes are not yielding the desired results. This chapter provides an overview of the traditionally important livelihood practices of the western Himalayan region and some of the emerging livelihood supporting activities based on natural resources of the region. A case study of Bhimtal lake catchment where transformation of traditional livelihood has taken place at a rapid pace due to the influence of tourism and urbanization has also been included to highlight the emerging scenario. The paper suggests some useful policy options for planning livelihoods in the western Himalayan region of the country.