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There are many manufacturers of biofertilizers in both government and private sectors. Only some of them have been listed here for the information

Introduction

Food demand is rising at an unprecedented rate as the world's population continues to rise. Meeting this rising demand is a significant challenge that requires innovative and sustainable solutions. While traditional agriculture has long been the backbone of food production, alternative methods such as aquaculture have gained recognition for their vital contribution to global food security. The projected global population of over 9 billion by 2050 presents a significant challenge in meeting the nutritional demands of an ever-expanding populace. Seafood represents a crucial source of animal protein, essential nutrients, and omega-3 fatty acids, making it a dietary staple for millions of individuals globally, particularly in coastal regions and developing nations.

American Ecologist Whittaker (1969) proposed the five kingdom system of classification. In his ‘Five Kingdom System’, he added three more kingdoms in to Linnean model of two kingdom system. These were: Monera, Protista and Fungi. Whittaker succeeded to overcome the difficulties as well as demerits of two, three and four kingdom systems and to represent the living organisms according to the evolutionary relationships among themselves. He also defined the kingdoms by a number of special characteristics such as whether the organisms possessed a true nucleus or not. Whittaker’s five kingdom system of classification is based on (a) mode of nutrition (b) cell structure and complexity (c) phylogenetic relationship (d) body organization and (e) reproduction.

The large branches within the Animal Kingdom evolutionary tree are ‘phyla’ (the singular being ‘phylum’). ‘Animal phyla’ outlines thirty three phyla, although there are still disputes and disagreements concerning how many phyla are needed to classify the less well-known species. The most easily recognised are Porifera, Cnidaria, Arthropoda, Nematoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Platyhelminthes, Echinodermata, and Chordata. Animal phyla each comprise a branch of the evolutionary tree and these branches are always connected to other branches.

In India, some of the major horticultural crops productivity is affected by major problems. Some of these have been overcomed by certain control measures strategies. However, a few of them are long lasting and have attained the status of national problems. These are mango malformation, alternate/biennial bearing, spongy tissue in mango, bunchy top of banana, guava wilt, citrus decline, rootwilt of coconut and yellow leaf disease of arecanut.

Mango malformation: Mango malformation was reported for the first time from Darbhanga, Bihar. The disease is more prevalent in northwest than northeast and south India. This disorder is widespread in flowers and vegetative shoots.Three types of symptoms are mainly observed. These are bunchy top phase, floral malformation and vegetative malformation. Bunchy top phase is observed in nursery, bunching of thickened small shoots, bearing small rudimental leaves. Shoots remain short and stunted giving a bunchy top appearance. In vegetative malformation, excessive vegetative branches of limited growth are observed in seedlings. 

Introduction

 India, situated between the latitude of 08004’ and 37006’ N and longitudes of

68007’ to 97025’ E, has a geographical area of 329 Mha. Physiographically, it

can be divided into three broad regions, viz., Peninsula (a triangular Plateau in

the Deccan and South of the Vindhyas), Mountain region of the Himalalayas

(Extra-Penninsula), and the Indo-Gangetic Plain separating these two regions.

Geologically, a great part of the Penninsula is occupied by the gneiss, schists

and other rocks of diverse nature. Red soils (Alfisols) generally predominate in

this region. The western and central parts predominate in basaltic rock having

Black cotton soils of different thickness (Vertisols, Inceptisols). The mountain

region shows the development of marine sediments of all ages, especially, in

north of the Himalayas. The vast Indo-Gangetic and other plains of Pleistocene

origin are composed of alluvium of the great river systems flowing in this

region. The alluvial soils of this region depend on the age of alluvia and degree

of development.

Climatically, India shows three distinct seasons:

 i) Cool and mainly dry winters from November to February

ii) Hot and mainly dry summers from March to June

iii) Monsoon rainy season from mid-June to September.

Camphor plant is valued for presence of camphor in its wood and leaves. Camphor is chiefly a pharmaceutical product though it is used in preparation of artificial essential oils like lavender and lavendin.  It is used as incense and in balms of various kinds.  It is employed as a masking agent in perfumery and sometimes used to achieve lift in perfume blends. Redistilled brown oil is used directly in soap perfumes for a masking effect. Oil is a source of safrole which is a starting material for production of various perfumery chemicals. In 13th century, Marco Polo noted that camphor oil was highly valued by Chinese as a medicine, scent, and embalming fluid.

Black pepper, christened as “King of spices” and “Black gold” is the most important and the most widely used spice in the world occupying a position that is supreme and unique. It was the lure of Indian pepper that brought the western world to Indian sub continent.

The black pepper of commerce is the dried mature fruit of the tropical perennial climbing plant Piper nigrum. Pepper originated in the tropical evergreen forests of the Western Ghats. The Malabar coast of India was the centre of pepper trade from time immemorial. Black pepper was essentially a minor forest produce in the past, people collected it from forests where it abundened. Domestication of pepper appears to be a much later event. The recorded history shows that Arabs, followed by the Portuguese, the Dutch and the British traders took pepper to all over the world and spread its use and cultivation. Initially black pepper was taken from the Malabar coast to the Indonesian islands, then it spread to various Pacific islands, South East Asian countries and later to tropical Africa and America. Currently, pepper is grown in about 26 countries, major being India, Indonesia, Brazil, Malaysia and Srilanka. In India, pepper is grown mainly in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and to a little extent in Goa, Orissa, Assam and Andaman group of islands. Kerala is the original home of pepper. This state accounts for 95% of country’s area and production.

India, the land of oldest civilization known through out the world for its vibrant cultures, faiths, lifestyle, traditions, rituals etc. which are interwoven with each other since time immemoral. Here people of different ethnic groups live together who speak different languages and dialects according to their religion and choice. Altogether, 68 million inhabitants belonging to 227 ethnic groups, comprising of 573 tribal communities exists in different part of the country. These people constitute 8.08% of the total population of India (1991 Census of India) and speaks <750 dialects that can be classified into one of the following three language families: Austro-Asiatic (AA), Dravidian (DR), and Tibeto-Burman (TB). When come to think of different tribal community’s inhabiting India, they can be easily divided into six major racial lineages i.e. - Negroid, Mongoloid, Proto-Australoid/ Austrics, Mediterranean or Dravidian, West Brachycephals and Nordic Aryans

Fertilizer recommendations are generally made on the basis of soil test. Recommendations of fertilizer for top-dressing are best made on tissue testing.

SOIL TEST

A number of approaches have been adopted to increase the precision of soil-test values in making fertilizer recommendations. Four most important ones are discussed.

Low-Medium-High Approach

Making fertilizer recommendations based on soil test for a nutrient involves conducting a large number of ?eld experiments on soils similar to those which are intended for making recommendations. For an individual nutrient (say P for example) experiments are conducted with graded doses of P on a crop for which the fertilizer recommendations are to be made. Thus, agronomic experiments are to be conducted for each crop on each kind of soil. The response curve can then be divided into three sections: a, low soil-test value and high response to fertilizer zone; b, medium soil-test value and medium response to fertilizer zone; and c, high soil-test values and no response to fertilizer zone. In India, this was done

Introduction

It is common that after a rocket start, entrepreneur’s lack the motivation to scale up business and eventually fails to succeed in the market. There are many factors that may lead to such failures or even success stories, the most important being the entrepreneurial skills and traits that enable business to sustain in the competitive world.

What makes an entrepreneur competent in running a business? According to Fisher and Koch (2008), ‘Entrepreneurs are born; the advantage that they derive by birth being the natural advantage. However, we have changed our mindset now-a-days, that it is possible to nurture (make) an entrepreneur; the connotation points out that, right kind of education and training can inspire people with capacities to become motivated to be an entrepreneur.

In this chapter, our focus will be on identifying the entrepreneurial capacities in oneself, after reviewing the essential characteristics and traits that an entrepreneur should possess. Also we try to put forward a framework for entrepreneurship, fitting into the canvas of a food based entrepreneur.

ABSTRACTS

Historiography deals with the idea of history writing in different timeframe in different environments and in this discourse historian plays significant role. Indian ancient past is a fertile ground to understand different socio-political aspects of the country from various standpoints. Remaining within the paradigm of historiography historian like Romila Thapar not only emphasizing to understand the past but also tries to disseminate these through their writings in different scholarly platform. Apart from her valuable writings in the form of books, her writings in different reputed journals also impress sizable generations of new scholars. In this study an attempt has been made to study her contribution in intellectual field through writing history of Indian past.

Keywords: History, Historian, Romila Thapar, Past, Historiography.

Introduction
Makkhan (Makhan) is an indigenous(desi) butter obtained by hand churning of dahi using wooden beater (mathani). It is traditional unsalted butter characterized by its delectable and rich flavour. It is white in colour with slightly greenish tinge and has typical soft body and a smooth grainy texture with pleasant aroma. This product has been extensively used for dietary and religious practices since vedic times. The entire quantity produced forms an intermediate product for preparation of ghee (clarified butter fat). Nearly 30% of the total milk production goes for desi butter manufacture. The average yield of the product is very low ranging from 5.5-7.0% for every 100 kg milk used for the purpose. The chemical composition of the product is variable depending upon the method of manufacture. It is difficult to achieve the uniform standard of 20% moisture in the final product due to limitations in the technique adopted for its manufacture. The non fatty solids and lactic acid are derived from the method of preparation and preservation. Higher non fatty solids in makhan indicates use of self soured milk, while a high lactic acid content indicates prolonged storage and in sanitary conditions of manufacture.

Morphological characteristics

Straight bole, longitudinally fissured bark, imparipinnate and elliptic leaves, fragrant flowers in huge panicles, and winged, flat pods distinguish Pterocarpus species in the field. The tree can grow up to 30 metres tall and 2.5 metres wide, with a straight and clean bole. The bark is scaly, tough, and fissured longitudinally. Leaflets are five to seven in number, 8–13 cm long, oblong or elliptic in shape, or rotund in shape, with 15–20 pairs of lateral veins. Kino-gum is a fragrant, brittle, almost black oleo-resin obtained from tree trunks that is angular and glistering and comes in minute flakes..

Floral characteristics

Yellow flowers bloom in panicles that are 1–5 cm long and fragrant. Flat, orbicular, winged pods with a diameter of up to 5 cm. Seeds range from one to three in number, are bony, and have a convex form. Flowering starts in November, and fruits lasts until March.

Distribution

The tree can be found in central and peninsular India, primarily in dry mixed deciduous tropical forests in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, as well as sub-Himalayan tracts, at elevations of up to 1000 metres. Natural populations have plummeted, and there are hardly any fragile young saplings in the forest. Due to a lack of autogenic reproduction, this species is endangered.

A very common condition caused by Malassezia pachydermatis in dogs. It is also caused by predisposing allergic skin disease. It occurs in ventral neck, ventral abdomen, axilla, face, pinnae, feet and forelegs. Tape impression smear will reveal numerous yeasts.

Okra

Genetic Resources

Okra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L) Monch.] s a crop of the tropical and subtropical owland regions of Africa, Asia, America and warmer temperate region of the Mediterranean. It is believed to be originated from tropical Asia or may have been existing in Africa and India as polyphylatic species. A. tuberculatus, one of the ancestors of okra occuring in India, has nine wild taxa, of which A. esculentus is popularly grown for pod production. The main region of cultivation and diversity of okra in India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh, are represented by various local cultivars of A. esculentus and A. moschatus (Table1).

Indifferent stage: Primordia are present for both sexes (gonads and mesonephric and paramesonephric ducts), although genetic sex is determined at fertilization.

Gonads : are structuarally indistinguishable prospective testis and ovaries. The first sign of gonadal development is a swelling called the gonadal ridge on the medial side of the middle part of the mesonephros. It enlarges due to arrival of primary germ cells. Cells of mesonephric tubules invade the ridge to form clusters and besides surround germ cells resulting in gonadal cords.

The primordial germ cells of these gonads arise from the endodermal cells of the yolk sac. These migrate to the gonadal ridge through the dorsal mesentry. Migration of primordial germ cells from the yolk sac endoderm into the gonadal ridges initiates testicular (if SRY gene is present) or ovarian development. The primordial germ cells form the sex cells, called gonadal blastema. The somatic blastema (non-germ cell) forms the other parenchymal elements of the gonads. The germ cells are capable of amoeboid-like movement.

The male genital organs (Fig. 4-6 C) comprise the two testicles (where the male gametes are produced) with their coverings and appendages; the epididymis (which stores and transports the gametes); the ductus deferens (the ducts of the testicles); the seminal vesicles, prostate and bulbourethral glands (accessory sex glands); the urethra and the penis (the organ of copulation).

Testicles (Testes)

The testicles are the essential male gonads. They produce male gametes, the spermatozoa and the endocrine secretion which influences the development and maintainance of masculine characteristics. The testicles are paired compound tubular glands situated in the scrotum below the inguinal canals suspended by spermatic cords. Each testicle is about 15 cm long and about 6.5 to 7.5 cm in diameter. Their long axis is vertical. The left testicle is more often slightly larger and lower in position than the right testicle. In such conditions the scrotum appears asymmetrical. Each testicle is slightly compressed from side to side and presents two surfaces, two borders and two extremities. The lateral surface is convex and smooth and is covered by the tunica vaginalis propria. The medial surface is slightly flattened due to its contact with the septum scroti. The cranial border is convex and it is free and hence is called the free border. The caudal border is nearly straight and is attached to the epididymis and hence is called the attached border or the epididymal border. The dorsal and ventral extremities are blunt and rounded.

Structure: The gland is compound tubular in structure. It is covered externally by peritoneum, the tunica vaginalis propria which is very closely attached to the underlined tissue. Underneath the peritoneum is the capsule of the testicle called the tunica albuginea because of its white colour. Numerous trabeculae extend from the capsule into the organ forming the supporting tissue for the seminiferous tubules and providing a pathway for vessels. The axial strand of connective tissue extending almost the entire length of the gland is the mediastinum testes. Radiating from the mediastinum are the lobes of yellowish

The male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes that produce sperm (or spermatozoa), ducts that transport the sperm to the penis and glands that add secretions to the sperm to make semen. The adult mammalian testis performs two important functions, spermatogenesis and male sex hormone production. It is an organ structurally designed to produce the haploid male gametes from diploid postnatal germ-line stem cells, i.e. type A spermatogonia.

Male sterility refers to a condition in which pollen is either absent or non functional or unable to produce functionally viable pollen in flowering plants. Since it was first reported by Kolreuter as early in 1763 that anther abortion occurs naturally in some plant species or in their inter specific crosses, its occurrence was observed in several species. In the 19th century, Gartner (1844) and Herbert (1847) reported the occasional recurrence of anthers rudimentariness or abortion in many ornamental and vegetable crops in normal populations. During the early 20th century, a large number of species were shown to possess male sterility, for example, Suturela hortensis, Lathyrus odoratus, Merculalis annua, Solanum tuberosum, Vitis vinifera, Linnum usitatissimum, Zea mays, Antirrhinum majus, Prunus persicaer and Rubus idaeus. Following the rediscovery of Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance, study of the genetic main basis of inheritance of male sterility attracted the attention of several workers. The main impetus for the study of inheritance of male sterility came from the elucidation of heterosis in maize by G. H. Shull, in 1908 and its exploitation through the use of male sterility by Jones and Clark (1943). The male sterility based scheme of hybrid seed production in corn opened up a new era for the hybrid corn industry as it could overcome the necessity of detasseling of female (parent) lines in the hybrid seed production process.

The male sterility may arise due to malformation of male sex organs, lack of normal anther sac, and inability of anthers to release mature pollens, lack of development of normal microspore.

Male sterility is a situation where the male reproductive parts of a plant are either absent, aborted, or non-functional; and therefore, they fail to participate in the process of natural sexual reproduction. This situation generally arises due to some developmental defect that occurs at any stage of microsporogenesis (process of development or release of pollen grains) in the plants. Since male sterility is the manifestation of abnormal growth and development and can occur at any point of time, the action of genes controlling male sterility is also be variable and inconsistent across the genotypes. Based on the type of malfunctioning of androecium, the male sterility systems have been classified as structural (absence or deformity of anthers), sporogenous (defective microsporogenesis), and functional (failure of mature pollen to germinate). In addition, on the basis of genetic control mechanism of the male sterility, it has also been classified as genetic, cytoplasmic, and cytoplasmic nuclear (or genetic) male sterility. With respect to utilization of male sterility in crop breeding, it is essential that individuals with altered male fertility keep their female fertility intact. The fertilization of such plants takes place with pollen grains from other plant that is transferred with the help of external agencies such as wind, insects, or human beings.