eChapters

Abstract: Alley cropping system is known for several services like fodder and fuel production, nutrient management, and soil erosion control from hilly terrain in humid tropics, but it could not make in farmers field. This study explores the role of Gliricidia leaf manure on nitrogen management in soils. Simultaneously, the system is modified to make it highly profitable, so that it may become farmer’s friendly in humid tropics. For nitrogen management in soil, two methods (leaves being incorporated into soil vs. surface) and three times of application, i.e. zero week after sowing (0 WAS), two week after sowing (2 WAS) and four week after sowing (4 WAS), of Gliricidia leaf in soil was considered. Two additional treatments, urea (120 kg ha-1, equal to the leaves) and control (no urea + no leaves) are also maintained to compute recovery of nitrogen from the leaves by the crop, and to know if the leaf manure could produce grain yield equal to that of equivalent urea. The study reveals there is no effect of the method of application on the decomposition and release of nitrogen from the leaves, soil N mineralization, nitrogen uptake, shoot biomass and yield of the crop, but time of application affects these parameters significantly. Maximum 50 % nitrogen is released quickly from the leaves within 15 days and remaining 48-49 % gradually in 60 days. Rate of soil N mineralization; nitrogen uptake, shoot biomass and grain yield in maize are the highest in 2 WAS and lowest in 4 WAS treatment. Recovery of nitrogen from the leaves is very low ranging from 4.5 to 9.3 kg ha-1. The leaves do not produce yield in maize equal to that of equivalent urea. However, for synchronization of maximum release of N from Gliricidia leaves and it’s 

Abstract: Stall feeding to cattle is not practiced in the Andaman Islands since generations. In the morning, after milking, cattle are allowed to go for free range grazing in the nearby forest or coconut arecanut orchards. But, like mainland territory the cattle do not form herd. They are trained in such a way that come back home during evening where they are fed with concentrate before the milking. Coconut and arecanut orchards occupying more than 14000 ha land are second major land use after forest in the Islands. The forage production in the grazing lands are not sufficient to meet out the demand of huge livestock population particularly during the lean period, form January to April. An attempt has been made to know the effect of four N fertilizer levels (0, 60, 80 and 120 kg ha-1 N) on net soil N mineralization rate (NMR) and soil moisture (SM), and shoot biomass (SB), FP, shoot biomass/root biomass ratio (SB/RB), N concentration in SB, N uptake and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of three grasses [Guinea (Panicum maximum Jacq.), Para (Brachiaria mutica (Forssk) Stapf) and Hybrid-napier (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.)] under three canopy positions [under canopy (UC, representing high shade), between canopy (BC, representing low shade) and open] of coconut trees (Cocos nucifera L.) in a coconut based silvopastoral system in the Island conditions. The study has revealed that the tree reduces light 59% under UC and 32 % under BC positions, but the N fertilizer levels increase NMR by 11 to 51 % under UC and 3 to 44 % under BC positions compared to the open. SM does not differ across the canopy positions

Abstract: The Trans Gangetic Plains of India is a large fertile tract of north-west India where intensive rice-wheat based farming has led to soil and water problems.  Agroforestry is among the viable options to overcome these problems. It has already shown positive effects such as increasing tree cover, augmenting wood needs of industries and ameliorating socio-economic status of farmers. Poplar based agroforestry models have been widely accepted by farmers. Site specific superior poplar clones have been developed for superiority, growth and resistance to pest and diseases. Farmers successfully grow the annual crops (sugarcane, turmeric), seasonal crops in winter (wheat, potato, mustard, mentha etc.) and summer season (cotton, moong, pearl millet, sorghum etc). The reduction in wheat grain yield varied from 10.2 to 46.6 per cent from first to sixth year as compared to open field. Selection of shade tolerant crop variety, appropriate sowing time, irrigation, seed and fertilizer dozes help to mitigate these losses. Wheat sown during first fortnight of November produced significantly higher grain yield than other sowing times. Wheat variety PBW 502 performed better amongst the six wheat varieties tested under poplar. Tree crop interactions influence the damage caused by insects and diseases. Cultural practices reduce the number of hibernating pupae of poplar leaf defoliators (PLD) which subsequently leads to lower incidence of these defoliators. Percent damaged leaves were more in fallow (5.44 - 60.53) and less in intercropped plantation (2.49 - 49.20). PLD adult emergence percentage was significantly less in intercropped and ploughed (49.5 and 67.5) than fallow (83.0) plantations

Abstract: Economy of Bihar is solely dependent on agriculture. Only 7% area is under forest as against a minimum 33% required for ecological balance. To counter the environmental degradation and to provide fuel, fodder and timber, different tree-crop combinations were tried for accessing their compatibility. As a result some agroforestry systems have been recommended and are discussed in this paper. Economics of some of the successful system has also been discussed. A detailed account of prevalent agroforestry practices in Bihar is also given. Agri-horticulture system is most popular system adopted by large and medium farmers in the region. Finally, constraints in adopting and carrying out research in agroforestry along with future strategies to extend agroforestry in Bihar are also given in the paper.

Introduction

Agroforestry land use system is one of the most important means for improving productivity of rural resources. People’s perception about agroforestry varies with their use perspectives. Only 7 % area is under forest as against a minimum 33 % required for ecological balance. Per capita consumption of wood fuel in Bihar is 0.27 m3 per year and industrial wood is 0.054 m3. One of the studies, on demand and supply of wood in Bihar conducted by Division of Forestry

Abstract: Dry land ecosystems cover about 41% of the earth’s land surface including hyper arid region. There is a considerable difference between them, in which arid region covers 7% of global lands. These are barely productive and provide a meager existence to small populations, usually nomadic with little settlements as in Thar desert. In addition to hyper arid, other types are arid, semi and dry-subhumid, which are in danger of becoming desertified. Environmental conditions are harsh affecting agriculture production. People of Indian arid zone are well acquainted about agroforestry- an age old practice in India, but maintaining only a few trees on farmlands does not serve the growing demand of fodder, fueldwood and food. Adoption of alternate land use systems like alley cropping, lay farming, tree farming, dryland horticulture etc. may intensify crop production and sustain the rural livelihoods. The selection of tree/shrub species may be based on the tolerance towards drought, salitnity/alkalinity prevailing in the region. Based on arrangements and combinations of trees/shrubs with associated crops, agroforestry are categorized into: agri-silviculture, agri-horticulture, agripasture, silvipasture, hortipasture and silviherbal. Common trees are P. cinreraria, T. undulata, Salvadora oleoides, Acacia nilotica, A. tortilis, Ailanthus excelsa, Zizyphus nummularia, Z, mauritiana etc.

Introduction

Agroforestry has vast potential not only to meet the demands of fuel, fodder, timber, medicine and other Non-wood Forest Products but also to enhance green cover, soil and water conservation and reduce pressure on forests. The objective of agroforestry is to take advantage of the complimentary relationships between trees, crops and livestock in such a way that the productivity, stability and sustainability of the total system are maintained. It has great potential in improving degraded and affected sites and has been recognized as a restoration agent, rehabilitation process, and bioremediation mechanism, in addition to increasing farm income.

Agroforestry is not a new practice for the farmers of Tamil Nadu.  It has been in practice in various forms e.g. growing Acacia leucophloea in the grazing lands with Cenchrus ciliaris in the Kangayam tract of Tamil Nadu exists from time immemorial to meet the mixed farming in that tract. In late 60’s farmers in coastal areas of Chengalpattu and Cuddalore districts started growing Casuarina to be sold as firewood.  This effort was entirely of the farmers without any support from the Government.

Abstract: Agro-ecosystem analysis of the island farming system revealed four distinct micro farming situations (MFS) viz., Hilly (MFS I), Slopping hilly upland (MFS II), Medium upland valley (MFS III) and Low lying valley (MFS IV). The enterprise combination study indicated the suitability of plantation based cropping sequences + backyard poultry and livestock in hilly areas, Short and medium duration paddy, vegetables, floriculture, plantations, fodder + backyard poultry + goat,  fish cum poultry cum duck and cattle in slopping hilly uplands, vegetables, plantations + backyard poultry, fish cum poultry cum duck in medium upland valley and long and short duration paddy, vegetables + backyard poultry, fish cum poultry and cattle in low lying valley micro farming situations. Productivity and profitability analysis of different farming systems under various micro farming situations revealed that net return obtained from cropping was Rs 3,26,408,  livestock and poultry was Rs 64,300 in MFS I where as under MFS II, it is Rs. 1,53,989 from cropping, Rs 77,176 from livestock and backyard poultry and Rs 12,465 from poultry + duck + fish. In MFS III, net return obtained from cropping was Rs 9,297 livestock was Rs 72,306 and poultry was Rs. 2,630 and poultry + duck + fish was Rs 24,957. Similarly, in MFS IV, net return obtained from cropping was Rs 57,760 where as Rs 90,893 was obtained from livestock, Rs 11,000 from backyard poultry and Rs 14,872 from poultry

Abstract: The study reports the influence of biophysical and socio-cultural factors on composition, diversity and distribution of plant species in the homegardens of the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago of India. In Nicobar mostly an aboriginal tribe the Nicobari predominates. The Nicobaries are Christians. However, in the Andamans people from different parts of Indian subcontinent have been rehabilitated in the mid twentieth century. Mixed culture prevails in South Andaman, but in the other Andaman islands either Bengali or Tamil culture predominates. Biophysically, South Andaman is hilly whereas Nicobar is flat. Rests of the islands lie in-between the two extremes. But, all are similar climatically. Twelve to thirty-four plant species are found in the homegardens that are planted, cared and harvested. These plants are: palm, fruit, spice and forest trees, formed three-storey structure in Andaman and two-storey structure in Nicobar’s homegardens. Floristic similarity among the homegardens of the Andamans is 82 to 92%. However, it is only 12-18% between the homegardens of Andaman and Nicobar. Compared to Nicobar, species richness is greater in the homegardens of the Andamans. But, diversity is higher and evenness lower in the homegardens of Nicobar. All plant species in the Nicobar’s homegardens are spontaneous in regeneration. Among the Andamans, proportion of spice trees is higher in the homegardens of South Andaman, mango and citrus in North Andaman, and pineapple and vegetables

Abstract: Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. Ex Del is an important multipurpose tree of traditional agroforestry system in the central India. The present chapter reports influence of tree canopy positions, i.e. mid canopy, canopy edge and canopy gap, of Acacia nilotica (12-yr) on texture, organic C, total and mineral N and P and soil pH, in different depths of soils, on productivity of rice during rainy and wheat during winter season. It also reports how residual nitrogen under the tree influence yield of rice following its felling after completion of rotation cycle. Sand particles are found to decline by 10% and 9% whereas clay particles increase by 14% and 10% under mid canopy and canopy edge, respectively, than in open. Clay particles are not influenced by the canopy positions. Soil organic C, total N, total P, mineral N (NO3- -N and NH4+- N) and P are greater under mid canopy and canopy edge positions than in open. Soil organic C and N pool sizes are maximum in 0-10 cm and decline with depths. Total and mineral P contents are nearly uniform across the depths. C/N ratio increases with soil depth. Despite greater nutrients pools under the tree, density, aboveground biomass, belowground biomass, aboveground biomass / belowground biomass ratio and yield of the rice decline by 27.5%, 27.5%, 19.1%, 14.8% and 24.9%, respectively. Like the rice, yield of wheat also declines under the tree. 

Introduction

Agroforestry refers to practices, which deliberately or intentionally mix or retain woody perennials on the crop/animal production systems. It combines elements of agriculture, crops and/ or animals with elements of forestry in production system in a unit of land, either simultaneously or sequentially. The term woody perennials includes tree, shrubs, bushes, palm, bamboos, etc. which in agroforestry context are often referred to as multipurpose trees and shrubs (Wood, 1988). The word deliberate has significance a few trees remaining during the process of land clearance for agriculture is not agroforestry. To qualify as agroforestry, a system should actively promote the woody perennials for a particular purpose, or purposes, on the farm (Bhatt et al., 2001). This land use system is particularly suitable for resource poor marginal farmers became diverse needs are fulfilled by one system with escape routes during natural calamities. In hill agro-ecosystems, agroforestry plays an important role in sustainable resource conservation and food security. It is also used to diversify and intensify farming systems through integration of indigenous tree-crops.

Abstract: The adoption of agroforestry systems has gained wider attention in the Multilateral Environment Agreements (MEA), international academia and policy makers for their multifunctional role and dynamics of ecosystem services. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has put forward ecosystem approach while Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emphasized agroforestry as an appropriate means to reduce emissions and enhance sinks of green house gases. Traditional agroforestry systems such as cardamom-based and farm-based practices are good examples in the Eastern Himalayas. We analyzed the management diversities and functional roles of these agroforestry systems for their productive and protective functions, biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, reduction of run-off rainfall, improvement of soil fertility, nutrient dynamics, nutrient release through decomposition, N2-fixation, energetics and efficiencies. Use of N2-fixing Himalayan alder (Alnus nepalensis) in large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) and Albizia spp. in mandarin agroforestry are traditional innovations. The agroforestry systems and practices are examples of how fragile and steep slopes of the mountains are converted into ecologically resilient productive zones. These adaptive traditional agroforestry provide options for sustainable management of natural resources from a unit land use types to a landscape level land use stages and offer opportunities for socioeconomic benefits.

Abstract: Shifting cultivation locally called Jhuming is a part and parcel of tribal life of the North Eastern Hill Region of India and it has direct bearing with their socio-cultural system. It is a boon to the farmers as long as the jhuming cycle is sufficiently longer (10-15 years) as this would not only produce a good crop but also gives sufficient time for ecological restoration and biophysical balance. However, with the increase in population pressure on land the jhuming cycle is getting drastically reduced (3-6 years). As a result of this, soil health is getting degraded and overall ecosystem is in threat. Many important flora and fauna are in the verge of extinction. As we cannot run away from the problem at least thinking about posterity, we have to find a decisive solution immediately. Developing improved methods of jhum cultivation like proper bunding, residue recycling, use of high yielding varieties etc. are few short term options. However long term viable options would be proper land configuration like terraces, water harvesting, agroforestry, adoption of integrated farming system approach and above all education and awareness among the tribal farmers which would help in sustaining the ecosystem of the region.

Abstract: The size of the homegardens ranged between 0.10-1.00 ha; they were located in tropical region with multi-storied structure, commonly containing three layers but sometimes with four layers. Individual households were the sampling units and for each homegarden, the area was measured and crop composition, species richness and uses of plant species was enumerated through direct observation and interviews with the farmers. The composition and richness of species varied between the homegardens but was related to site characteristics and size of the garden. A total of 231 plant species (105 tree species, 50 shrubs and 76 herbs) belonging to 88 families were recorded from the gardens among which 27% species were common to all gardens. Among the trees, as many as 24 species (23%) were common to all the homegardens. The vegetable species constituted the major functional group followed by fruits. Homegardens were found to be a good reservoir of plant genetic resources that preserve diverse landraces, cultivars, and many more ecologically and economically important plant species. Our study depicts that the homegardens can play an important role in food security and sustainable livelihood support of this hilly people in a variety of ways and can be an alternative to shifting cultivation.