eChapters

1.1. History of Cultivation

Prehistoric people lived as hunters and gatherers. About ten thousand years since now they unveiled the mystery of germination and engaged themselves in production of plant from seed. Since then it was practiced in the open field fully exposed to sun, rainfall, ambient temperature & humidity, etc. Gradually, with the development of society, they improved the package of practice and became accustomed to produce better crop in accordance with these natural conditions.

Backdrop of modern agriculture technology: Since the late 19^th century, population all over the world increased rapidly, which demanded more food production. This situation prompted crop production as a profitable business. New scientific inventions were incorporated in farming practices to increase the production per unit area (yield). On the other hand, repeated cultivation of same or similar crops in the same land, year after years, gradually reduced the productivity of soil. Hence, need arose for increase of crop yield through further improvement in farming technology.

First-phase development: The incorporation of ‘chemicals’ into the soil as plant nutrients(fertilizers) coupled with the use of ‘high-yielding varieties’ changed the scenario of crop production in the sixties of last century. This, along with ‘mechanization’, increased crop yield many-fold and helped to bring large areas under the plough. Countries, which developed these technologies, made good amount of money/profit from this development. Gradually, the rest of the world adopted or purchased these technologies particularly to meet up the rising demand of food in their respective country.

Subsequent problem: This systemof cultivation solvedthe food scarcity problem initially but use of chemicals, cultivation of similar crop over a large area etc. destroyed the agro- ecological balance. These technological developments, coupled with adoption of labour saving technologies, gradually created problems like gradual loss of soil health, lowering of nutrient-use-efficiency and subsequent yield. This invited severe attack of pests like insect, disease, weed and related social problem like unemployment.

Among abiotic stresses, low and high temperature stress is very critical for determining the agricultural production. Plants exhibit a maximum rate of growth and development at an optimum temperature or over a diurnal range of temperatures (Fitter and Hay, 1981). When ambient temperature deviates from optimal, physiological, biochemical, metabolic and molecular changes occur within plants. This is an effort of plants to maximize growth and developmental processes and to maintain cellular homeostasis during such adverse conditions. Under increasingly stressful conditions, plants experience progressively more abnormal, impaired or dysfunctional cellular and whole-plant processes until the cardinal temperatures for survival are reached (Fitter and Hay, 1981). At the extremes of the natural temperature range of a plant, the degree of physiological, cellular, metabolic and molecular dysfunction becomes so severe that it leads to death.

Growth constraints and stress result in significant crop losses and therefore the mechanisms underlying endurance and adaptation to these changes have long been the focus of intense research (Bray 2004). Kültz (2005) elaborated two types of responses to a particular kind of stress:

Vegetable crops, known as protective foods, are important for the healthy diet providing vitamins, minerals, fibre, amino acids and other bioactive compounds. Improvement in vegetable crops is inevitable for better yield, pest or disease resistance, morphological characters, nutritive quality, to adapt with environmental stress, climate change, offseason production, satisfying varying consumer preference etc. Vegetable crops comprise of a large number of species and are rich in diversity. Diverse genetic resources are pre-requisite for any crop improvement programme and vegetable improvement is carried out using exotic introductions, indigenous collection and hybrids/varieties by different breeding systems. Characterisation of genotypes is the description of germplasm giving information on heritable characters so that promising one can be utilised in breeding programme which is the best option for higher yield and other qualities. The morphological, physiological and molecular (biochemical and DNA) traits are called qualitative descriptor and yield, pest/disease resistance, stress tolerance etc are quantitative descriptors that are easily influenced by the environment factors. Apart from the higher production and resistance to biotic and abiotic factors, nutritional traits, flavour, processing qualities that increase the food value is also important in improvement programme of fruits as well as vegetables.

Genetic resources of vegetables available at international and national levels are characterised, evaluated and conserved. With the high diversity of vegetable crops, characterisation and evaluation of genetic resources become a stupendous responsibility requiring extensive infrastructure facilities and varying methods of evaluation (Srivastva, 2012). Genetic resources are characterised on highly heritable traits expressed across the environment. Apart from morphological characterisation, biochemical and molecular characterisation is also conducted that are useful for the identification of biotic and abiotic stress parameters, nutritional and processing quality. Genotype characterisation can be done efficiently using potential of biochemical and molecular markers that help to set up the breeding programme.

Genetic diversity is one of the fundamental character present in any population or species. It is the total variation either phenotypic or genotypic which have occured in a population through due course of evolution. Variation in any species depends on mutation, substitution (insertion/deletion) and response to selection. However, comprehensive studies on theoretical and empirical perspectives for diversity analysis may be found by evolutionary biologists to understand the factor that influences levels of genetic diversity in natural population (Lewontin, 1974). In brief, nucleotides/ protein codes are the basic unit to quantify total amount of variation. Bioinformatic tools and techniques help us to measure inferring relationships between genes, proteins or organisms through use of these DNA/protein sequences by integration of mathematical algorithms, statistical and computer databases.

Diversity analysis is popularly known as phylogenetic analysis in bioinformatic terms. The basic principle of phylogeny is analysis/alignment of characters; whether it is morphological or molecular data. For instance, in case of morphological data of a crop species, the leaf colour/stem colour/fruit colour/grain size etc. may be compared however sequence data is problem of interest for molecular phylogeny. The evolutionary history of any crop species/ organisms inferred from phylogeny analysis mostly depicted through treelike diagrams/ dendrograms. In this chapter, phylogenetic analysis based on only nucleotide/protein sequences are discussed. For analysis of phylogenetics, default assumptions (Baxevanis and Ouellette, 2006) are:

INTRODUCTION

Genetic engineering (GE) and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) provide powerful tools for sustainable development in agriculture, healthcare and many other industries. GMOs are those which were genetically engineered in a laboratory by incorporating a small foreign DNA fragment carrying a gene of interest into the native DNA of the organism. The foreign gene is attached with the necessary regulatory elements to help its expression in the new genetic environment. Genetically modified (GM) crops currently account for some 16 percent of the world’s land planted with soybean, maize, cotton and canola. The global demand for food is increasing because of the growing world population and decreasing arable land. At the same time food and agricultural systems have to respond to several changes such as increasing international competition, globalization and rising consumer demands for improved food quality, safety, health enhancement and convenience. Modern biotechnology involving the use of rDNA technology/genetic engineering has emerged as a powerful tool with many potential application for improving the quantity and quality of food supply. Foods derived from genetically modified crops, commonly referred to as genetically modified food and food ingredients have already become available worldwide with aim of enhancing productivity, decreasing the use of certain agricultural chemicals, modifying the inherent properties of crops, improving the nutritional value or even increasing shelf life. Results of DNA modification may not be limited only to the particular characteristics of the replaced gene. It is therefore important to ensure that when these organisms are released into nature they do not harm the environment or human health [EFSA, 2006]. Such concerns have led to broader interests in the theme of risk assessment in the release of GMOs. A cautious approach is necessary to assess environmental risks which may occur due to introduction of recombinant organisms in the natural environment [Johnson et al., 2007].

Intellectual property: It can be defined as creations of intellectual brain which has value, utility/application in the society and can be traded in commerce for economic benefits.

Significance of Intellectual Property: The significance of protection of Intellectual Property has been realized for wealth and value creation in a knowledge-based economy. The agricultural scientists are comparatively little aware of IPR issues because their primary mandate has always been the free delivery of technology to the end users particularly the farmers. After the implementation of TRIPS Agreement during 1995, the worldwide focus of scientists and planners was shifted on the development of time appropriate technologies, protection of inventions/ technologies and real time technology transfer through licensing for industrial and agricultural growth leading to overall economic development. Under the changing scenario of global trade, where national governments are entering into bilateral agreements for tackling IPR issues to promote trade, agricultural scientists must also look for managing their intellectual properties in tune with the existing IP legislation of the country.

The Indian centre of origin and diversity of cultivated plants represent an outstandingly rich reservoir of nature’s wealth of plant species which include a large number of economically important species including Vegetable Crops. Common vegetables like okra and brinjal are native to this region. Out of the recorded 110 genera and 640 species of cucurbits, 100 species representing 36 genera occur in India. Twenty of these species are endemic. Adoption of high yielding crop varieties and hybrids along with changing land use patterns have led to rapid replacement of native cultivars in most cases. Conserving and sustainable utilization of locally adapted types and primitive landraces are, hence, now major concerns at the national and global levels.

The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) at New Delhi is the nodal organization in India with the national mandate to plan, conduct, promote and coordinate all activities concerning plant exploration and collection, germ plasm import and exchange, plant quarantine, germplasm multiplication and distribution, evaluation and characterization, documentation and conservation of both indigenous and introduced genetic variability in cultivated plants and their wild relatives.

The challenging job of collecting, genetic evaluation and utilization of plant genetic resources cannot be satisfactorily accomplished by one organization. The enormous task of safeguarding and promoting greater utilization of these valuable resources can be best achieved through a networking approach. Professional development is the key to success of this endeavour. NBPGR organizes regularly short-term training courses on various aspects of PGR to impart latest knowledge and techniques to scientists and technicians engaged in crop improvement programmes and handling germpalsm collections.

PLANT EXPLORATION AND GERMPLASM COLLECTION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES

Plant exploration and collection activities have been undertaken for a wide range of needs - by naturalists, travelers and plant hunters over the past several centuries in the quest for new and better economic plants in the southeast Asian region, ornamentals in the Himalayas and many others; by taxonomists for working out plant diversity and delineating phyto- geographic differences, and providing a basis for pinpointing areas with high species diversity and changes over time; world-wide collection, augmentation and characterization of crop plant diversity by Vavilov and co-workers (1926) for understanding the patterns of crop plant diversity and delineating centres of diversity; search for wild forms of species, and wild relatives of crop plants for working out primary centres of origin and crop genepools; biosystematic study, survey and in situ study and collection in protected areas for determining patterns of diversity build-up in crop and wild species. Concept of centres of origin of crop plants, importance of the wild genepool of crops, dependence on wild plants as a source of edible and otherwise useful species ensuing from these efforts provide the basis for systematic exploration and collection of plant genetic resources.

Plant genetic resources represent both the basis for agricultural development and a reservoir of genetic adaptability that acts as a buffer against environmental changes. The erosion of these resources threatens world food security. From an agricultural utilitarian standpoint, plant genetic resources can be considered limited and perishable natural resources. PGR forms a distinct group and include all plant species, which contribute to people livelihoods by providing food, medicine, feed for domestic animals, fibres, clothing, shelter, energy and other uses and are subject to cultivation by man as well as the wild relatives of these species. Genetic diversity simply means all the variety of genes that exist in a particular variety or species. They provide the raw material (genes) which, when used and combined in the right way, produce new and better plant varieties, and are an irreplaceable source of such characteristics as resistance to disease, local adaptation, and productivity. Plant genetic resources are now, and will continue to be in the future, of inestimable value independently of whether scientists use them by means of conventional plant breeding or modern genetic engineering. These genes are dispersed throughout local cultivars and natural plant populations that have been selected over thousands of years by farmers and nature for their characteristics of adaptation, resistance and/or productivity. The road to a continuous increase in the production and quality of food lies through the protection and efficient utilization of plant genetic resources; this requires their conservation, evaluation, documentation and exchange.

Plant biodiversity is the single greatest resource that man garnered from nature during the long cultural development phase. More than 2.5 lakh species of mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants and more than 50,000 plant species are yet to be documented, primarily in the remote and less studied reaches of tropical forests.

Vegetable crops in which rich diversity occurs in India are Cowpea, Common bean, Cole crops, Okra, Brinjal, Sweet potato, Taros, Yams, Sword bean, Velvet bean and Elephant foot yam. Wide diversity was observed in chives, leeks and other Allium spp in Kumaoun and Garhwal Himalayas; cluster bean in Western arid zone; lab lab bean in Deccan plateau; cucurbits in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh and leaf vegetables like Amaranth and Fagopyrum in Western Himalayan region. Tropical vegetables consist of solanaceus fruits (tomato, hot pepper, brinjal), cucurbits (water melon, muskmelon, cucumber, pumpkins and squashes, bottle gourd, chow-chow, ivy gourd, bitter gourd, ash gourd, round gourd, snake gourd, pointed gourd, sponge gourd, ridge gourd), malvaceous vegetables (Okra),legumes (common bean, lima bean, dolichos bean, cowpea, sword bean, winged bean), allium (onion, shallot, garlic, leek) and leaf vegetables (amaranth, spinach beet, Ceylon spinach). The indigenous vegetables both cultivated and wild have important role in household nutrition, economy and food security. There are 25 hot spots of biodiversity of which Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayan region are the most important ones. Indo-Myanmar region is one of the largest hot spots of the world and is the centre of origin of tuber crops like yams, taro, Amorphophallus and Alocasia. Tropical tuber crops form an important group of subsistence crops especially to those living in tropics and sub tropical zones. Tuber crops are the third important food crops after cereals and grain legumes. Major tuber crops are cassava, sweet potato, Asiatic yam, African yam, lesser yam, elephant foot yam, taro, tannia and country potato. Minor tuber crops are arrowroot, winged bean, yam bean, canna, safed musli and Jerusalem artichoke. Sweet potato is one of the world’s highest yielding crops.

Biodiversity is the origin of all species of crops and domesticated and the variety within them. It is also the foundation of ecosystem services essential to sustain agriculture and human well-being. Today’s crop and livestock biodiversity are the result of many thousands years of human intervention. The biodiversity in vegetable crops is composed by the genetic diversity, as species diversity (inter specific diversity) and as diversity of genes within a species (intra specific diversity) referring to the vegetable grown varieties, and by the diversity of agro-ecosystems (agro-biodiversity).

Crop diversity is the variance in genetic and phenotypic characteristics of plants used in agriculture. Over the past 50 years, there has been a major decline in two components of crop diversity; genetic diversity within each crop and the number of species commonly grown.

8.1 Introduction

There are many theories that deal with the generation of innovations, their diffusion and adoption or non-adoption by the end users. Such theories include actor-network theory, knowledge systems and network theory, strategic niche management theory and adoption and diffusion of innovations theory (Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971; Rogers, 1983, 1993, 2003). Among the different theories, the diffusion and adoption theory has achieved a prominent position in the field of anthropology, sociology, public health, medical sociology, communication, marketing and management, economics, public administration, industrial engineering, geography and many other disciplines all over the world for more than half a century. The main elements of diffusion of innovation as identified by Rogers (1962) are: i) An innovation, ii) Communication channels, iii) Time and iv) Social system. This shows that diffusion of any innovation will take place only if a new idea or practice exists which is accepted by an individual or a group of people over a period of time. The rate of diffusion depends upon the availability of communication channels and structure of the social system. But, in 1966, Fliegal and Kivlin complained that the diffusion of innovation has the status of a basted child with respect to parent’s interest in social and cultural change: Too big to ignore but unlikely to give full recognition.

The sustainable agricultural practices include integrated pest management (IPM), integrated nutrient management (INM), soil conservation and water management. However, there is not a single technological innovation were the innovator/company that commercializes a technology is not interested whether it is adopted/purchased by the consumer.

7.1 Introduction

In this chapter, process, outcome and impact evaluation of the vegetable integrated pest management programme (IPM) implemented in the subtropical area of the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) state during 2008-09 and 2009-10 was studied. There are many research designs employed for impact evaluation. These include one group before and after comparison design, one group time-series design, non-equivalent control group design and ex-post facto research design. Social scientists most often used before and after IPM (longitudinal) comparisons, with and without IPM, and control group (latitudinal) comparisons, and a combination of the two (longitudinal and latitudinal). A robust measure of the impact of a programme, however, is the difference-in-differences (Ashenfelter and Card, 1985) quasi-experimental design, a statistical technique used in econometrics and quantitative sociology to determine the difference between the treatment (with) and control group (without) over time. The difference-in-differences quasi-experimental design, also called double difference (DD), used to compare the treatment (with IPM) and control group (without IPM) over time. The objective of our quasi-experimental empirical study was to determine the impact of the vegetable IPM programme on the adoption of non-chemical pest management practices, pesticide use, and field use environmental impact in the sub-tropical region of the J&K state. Difference-in-difference quasi-experimental control group design (with/without, before/after) was used to compare the changes before and after the IPM programme between the IPM trained farmers and the non-IPM farmers. The DD model was employed to identify the impact of the IPM programme on the adoption of non-pesticide IPM practices, pesticide use by weight (a.i.), pesticide use frequency, farmers’ knowledge regarding safe use and handling of the pesticides, and field use environmental impact to address the bias introduced by a non-random sampling procedure as the farmers from FFS were selected intentionally (Table 1). The DD model also eliminated the in-built, systematic or seasonal effects other than the training effect.

6.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the impact evaluation (summative) of the vegetable IPM programme that was conducted by the Central Integrated Pest Management Centre (CIPMC) Jammu in the sub-tropical areas of Jammu, Samba and Kathua districts. These districts were selected purposively as the maximum numbers of IPM-FFS were conducted by CIPMC in these three districts. Ex-post facto research design (with/without) was employed for conducting the impact evaluation of vegetable IPM-FFS programmes conducted between 2003-04 and 2007-08. This design uses a pre-existing situation as the treatment instead of actual manipulation of the variables. An ex post facto study uses a comparable site as the control to find the programme effects.

An Ex-post facto research is a systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct control of independent variables because their manifestations have already occurred or because they are inherently not manipulated. Inferences about relations among variables are made, without direct intervention, from co commitment variation of independent and dependent variables. This kind of research is based on a scientific and analytical examination of dependent and independent variables. Independent variables are studied in retrospect for seeking possible and plausible relations and the likely effects that the changes in independent variables produce on a single or a set of dependent variables. The ex-post facto design was also used by Peshin and Kalra (1998); Reddy (2006); Maraddi et al., (2007) while evaluating the IPM programmes. The indicators for evaluation of the IPM-FFS programme were selected based on the requirements of the research design.

5.1 Introduction

A theoretical system is what we construct in one mind’s eye to model the empirical system. Theories and models provide the researcher concepts, definitions’, variables and hypothesis that may be tested by analyzing relevant data (Bhatia, 1990). A theory emerges from the research and so does a particular research pursuit from the theory. The theory is a set of interrelated constructs, definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explanation and predicting the phenomena (Kerlinger,1973). A researcher seldom conducts research without any concern for theory. A theory provides major orientation to research by helping to define the type of data to be collected and theory emerges from facts (data) collected during research. Theory and facts are not opposed but intervened, the theory is not speculation and scientists are concerned with theory as well as facts (Anonymous, 2011). It is possible to conduct evaluation without paying any attention to theory and forms of evaluation, but such evaluation studies lack internal validity because these are not based on the rigorous evaluation research methodologies (Campbell and Stanlay,1966). According to Alkin and Christie (2004), evaluation has grown on three pillars of orientation i.e. research orientation, decision making orientation and assessing worth. The field of evaluation research can be defined as “the use of scientific methods to measure the implementation and outcome of programmes for decision-making purposes” (Rutman, 1984). The concept of evaluation research has been an issue of debate among academicians. The academicians consider that evaluation research differs from both basic research as well as applied research (Douglah, 1998).

4.1 Introduction

There is no widely accepted methodology for evaluation of IPM programmes. It would be fair to say that commonly accepted methodology for evaluation of the IPM programmes is still under development. Three international workshops supported by the Global IPM Facility were held to discuss and review progress in the development of methodologies and guidelines for the evaluation of IPM, particularly of those programmes/projects using the FFS approach (van den Berg and Jiggins, 2007). The need to combine economic and social science approaches was identified by the participants as a major challenge (Waibel et al., 1999). The recommendations of these workshops are:

“Firstly, the methods of impact assessment and evaluation presented by experts from different fields revealed that despite for the many definitions’ about IPM, there was broad consensus that IPM is about avoiding pesticides dependence and about achieving a socially defined level of pesticide use even though there are many types of IPM intervention. They range from ordinary farmer training to sophisticated ‘Farmer Field School’ approaches. Effective communicated research results that challenge existing paradigms and case studies that draw the attention of politicians and civil society can be subsumed under IPM intervention.

Secondly, need for a document that outlines good practices for IPM evaluation is urgent, because of the diversity of IPM intervention that already exist and that can be further expected. Virtually all groups involved in crop protection, including the chemical companies, label their own concept of IPM as it is a free good that can be taken, reproduced and modified by anyone. Hence, IPM can only be measured by its results and no longer by its inputs.

Thirdly, the different groups who participated in the workshop advocated different approaches to evaluation. There were those who see cost-benefit analysis (CAB) as the major tool of evaluation and wanted to refine this tool by adding economic evaluation of environmental impacts and by applying contingent valuation methods and willingness to pay concepts. Others believe that evaluation should not be a checking procedure but should be designed in the spirit of a joint learning experience. Thus, there was a difference of opinion among the economists on the one hand and anthropologists’ and extension specialists on the other hand. But, lastly, it was concluded that there is a need to set standards which must be met if CBA is going to provide the information that facilitates decision-making.

3.1 Introduction

Diffusion is a broader term, which encompasses unplanned as well as planned and directed spread of an innovation. In this chapter, the emphasis is on dissemination of integrated pest management (IPM) technologies. A wide variety of methods and media are being used for delivering IPM technologies depending upon the type of information and the stage of implementation (Whalon et al., 1982). The mass media methods such as print and electronic media are useful for creating awareness rather than directly assisting the farmer to use IPM technology (Lumber et al., 1985). Mass media methods are less intense methods than face to face method namely farmer field school.

3.2 Methods Used for Dissemination of IPM Technologies

Different methods used for dissemination of IPM technologies include the use of mass media including electronic and print media, field days, extension visits, video movies, plant clinics, IPM clubs, picture songs, IPM websites farmer field school etc.

2.1 Introduction

India is the second largest vegetables producing country next to China. Vegetable crops are grown on an area of 7.2 million hectares (Mha) with an annual production of 113.5 million tonnes (mt) in the year 2005-06 (Rai, 2007). The extent of crop losses in vegetable crops variety with the crop type, location, damage potential of the insect pests involved and cropping season. As vegetables are perishable items and are more prone to pest attacks, and at a conservative estimate, insect pests cause about 35-40 percent losses (Sardana et al., 2005). The major vegetables cultivated by farmers were cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.), cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.), and okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Moench)). The chief pests of the cauliflower and cabbage crops were the tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura Fab.), diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella L.), cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicae L.), cabbage borer (Hellula undalis Fab.) and aphids (Brevicoryne brassicae L.). In the okra crop, the shoot and fruit borer (Earias vitella Fab.), jassids/leafhoppers (Amrasca bigutulla bigutulla Ishida) whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci Gennadius) and fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera Hübner) were the main pests. Yield losses due to diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) 17-99 percent, cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicae) 69 percent, and crucifer leaf webber (Crocidolomia binotalis) 28-51 percent, cabbage borer (Hellula undalis) 30-58 percent in cabbage/cauliflower. In Brinjal, 11-93 percent loss is caused by fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis). In okra, yield losses due to shoot and fruit borer (Earias vitella) is 23-54 percent, jassids/ leafhoppers (Amrasca bigutulla bigutulla) 54-66 percent, whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci) 54 percent and due to fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera) yield loss is in the tune of 22 percent (Shanker et al. 2008). The management strategy for the insect pests and diseases remain largely confined to pesticides. The overemphasis on the use of chemical pesticides by the vegetable growers leads to the multitude of problems to human health and ecology.

1.1 Introduction

Over the centuries, farmers experimented and developed pest management practice to minimize the damage caused by pests. Paul Muller (1939) discovered insecticidal properties in DDT, which resulted in ushering the synthetic pesticide era. The period from the late 1940s through to 1960s has been called the ‘Dark Ages’ of pest control (Newsom, 1980). Calendar based pesticides schedules were developed by the scientists and disseminated to farmers by extension workers. During this period other control measures were not even considered for further research by the agriculture scientists. The intensification of agriculture with the excessive and indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides (DDT) in the 1940s and 1950s resulted in dysfunctional consequences like the resurgence of target pests, the appearance of new pests, and the development of tolerance to individual pesticides in many species (van Emden, 2002). The period was dominated by the belief that the pesticide was the only solution to pest management. In the 1960s itself, a major change in thinking occurred following the realization that pesticides had serious limitations and in several cases produce undesirable consequences (Norris et al., 2002). A solution to the problem caused by indiscriminate use of insecticide began to be developed by the entomologists through integrated control practices (Zodoks and Schein 1979).

The science of agrometeorology has great practical utility in protection against, or avoidance of adverse climate risks of crop production. Agrometeorological information can be used in efficient land use planning, determining suitable crops for a region, risk analysis of climate hazards and profit calculations in farming, production and harvest forecasts, and in adoption of farming methods and choice of farm machinery. Meteorological instruments are the equipments used to sample the state of the atmosphere at a given time. Meteorology does not use much laboratory equipments but relies more on field-mode in situ observation and remote sensing equipments. Rain was one of the first weather parameter to be measured historically. Two other accurately measured weather-related variables are wind and humidity.

An agrometeorological observatory or station is a place where all the necessary instruments and structures are installed and maintained to observe and record the weather parameters at stipulated time interval.

Many aspects of the global climate are changing rapidly. Evidence for changes in the climate system abounds, from the top of the atmosphere to the depths of the oceans. The climate system is the highly complex system consisting of five major components; the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the land surface and the biosphere, and the interactions among them. The climate system evolves in time under the influence of its own internal dynamics and because of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations and human-induced forcings such as the changing composition of the atmosphere and land-use.

The term ‘climate variability’ is often used to denote deviations of climatic statistics over a given period of time (e.g., a month, season or year) from the long-term statistics relating to the corresponding calendar period. In this sense, climate variability is measured by those deviations, which are usually termed anomalies.

‘Climate change’ refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or due to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. The United Nation’s Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines ‘climate change’ as ‘a change of climate behaviour which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between ‘climate change’ attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric composition, and ‘climate variability’ attributable to natural causes. Climate change is a long-term shift in weather conditions measured by changes in temperature, precipitation, wind, snow cover, and other indicators. It can involve both changes in average conditions and changes in variability, including, for example, changes in extreme conditions.

A key difference between climate variability and change is in persistence of ‘anomalous’ conditions. In other words, events that are used to be rare occur more frequently, or vice versa. Occasionally, an event or sequence of events occurs that has never been recorded before, such as the exceptional tsunami in the Indian Ocean in 2004 or hurricane season in the Atlantic in 2005. Yet even that could be a part of natural climate variability. If such a season does not recur within the next 30 years, by looking back it could be called as an exceptional year, but not a ‘climate change’. Only a persistent series of unusual events taken in the context of regional climate parameters can suggest that a potential change in climate has occurred.