eChapters

The kidney plays a role in controlling the volume of different bodily fluids, fluid osmolality, acid-base balance, toxin elimination, and different electrolyte concentrations. The glomerulus filters one-fifth of the volume of blood that enters the kidneys. Among the compounds that are reabsorbed include amino acids, salt, bicarbonate, glucose, and solute-free water. Among the chemicals that are released are ammonium, potassium, hydrogen, and uric acid. The kidneys maintain homeostasis, eliminate metabolic waste products like uric acid, urea, creatinine and ammonia, regulate extracellular fluid volume, blood pressure (via the rennin-angiotensin system) and controlling systemic pH (via regulation of H+ and HCO3- concentration).
Among various kidney diseases, especially chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a slow loss of kidney function in which, kidney dysfunction is present for more than three months. There are six progressive stages of CKD i.e. stages 1, 2, 3a, 3b, 4 and 5. The stages are based on the results of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) test (1). In stage 1 there is mild kidney damage, while in stage 5 kidneys lost their working capacity. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a worldwide health issue that is becoming more prevalent in both developed and developing nations. It typically affects adults. .

Respiratory tract disorders in domestic animals
The respiratory system is vital for efficient oxygen exchange, metabolic function, and overall health. Respiratory tract disorders in livestock speciesare among the most significant health challenges, leading to  economic losses in terms of reduced productivity, treatment costs, and mortality. Thesedisorders can affect the upper respiratory tract (URT), lower respiratory tract  (LRT), or both. Overview of common respiratory diseases in livestock, their aetiology, clinical manifestations, pathophysiology, diagnostic approaches, and management strategies are summarized as follows: -
1. Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex (BRDC)
? Species affected: Cattle
? Etiology: Multifactorial; involves viruses (Bovine herpesvirus-1, Bovine respiratory syncytial virus, Parainfluenza-3, Bovine viral diarrhea virus), bacteria (Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Mycoplasma bovis), and environmental stressors

Introduction
Serving as the primary biological barrier, the skin aids in immunological responses and provides protection against environmental pollutants and microorganisms, dehydration, and mechanical harm. The skin’s epidermis is made up of stratified and multilayered epithelial cells that, via a strictly controlled balance between terminal differentiation and cell proliferation, undergo lifelong self-renewal. One of the main causes of a wide range of skin conditions is the upset of this equilibrium.
Mycoses in humans and animals are prevalent worldwide. These diseases can arise as a result of a number of physiological and environmental factors, such as the effectiveness of the immune system of the recipient and the amount of fungi in the environment. Companion animal dermatoses rank among the most common reasons for clinic visits in day-to-day veterinary practice.

Tumour in Domestic Animals
Tumours in domestic animals, much like in humans, can occur in various tissues and organs. These can range from benign growths (non-cancerous) to malignant tumors or cancerous. Their causes, types, diagnosis, and treatments depend on the animal species, breed, age, and environmental factors. Common tumours in dogs are mammary tumours, skin tumours, lymphoma, osteosarcoma and hemangiosarcoma. In cats lymphoma, squamous cell carcinoma, mammary tumors and fibrosarcomas are reported. In cattle, squamous cell carcinoma, lymphosarcoma and papilloma are common. In horses, sarcoids, melanomas and squamous cell carcinoma are common. In small ruminants (sheep and goats) lymphoma and skin tumours are reported. In pigs, lymphoma and melanomas are commonly reported. Diagnosis of cancers are done by physical examination, cytology, biopsy, imaging: X-rays, ultrasound, CT, MRI and blood Tests.

Wound in Domestic Animals
A wound is defined as a break in the continuity of the skin, mucous membrane, or tissue surface that can result from physical, chemical, or biological agents. India has a diverse variety of livestock breeds, extensive countryside with vast grazing lands, and widespread use of livestock. The significant population of stray animals, including dogs, cats, and cattle, as well as the increase in pet ownership, make wounds in animals a commonly encountered condition. Wounds in animals can be a frustrating issue for both pets and productive animals, and this can also be a challenge for their owners. For instance, bleeding at the wound site from sudden cuts and bites can cause panic and distress among animal owners. Wounds can become complicated, as animals may lick, scratch, or otherwise irritate them, leading to infections, especially when they are soiled. Additionally, fly infestation and maggots, common in various temperate regions of India, further complicate the wound healing process. An unattended wound can quickly escalate to a severe microbial infection, which may lead to septicemia, maggot infestation, and can even become fatal for the animal. The cost of treating wounds in production animals, including expenses for antibiotics, can impose an economic burden on farmers. Common causes of wounds in domestic animals include penetrating injuries from horns, stamping injuries caused by mothers or other adult animals in tightly packed barns, tightened nose ropes, barbed wire injuries at the brisket region (in horses and cattle), and wet sores on the inner surfaces of the shoulder and groin in cattle due to friction and lack of air and sunlight exposure.

Introduction

The incidence of diabetes mellitus is increasing all over the world and is becoming a problem of significant importance. Diabetes mellitus is a disease of CHO metabolism and WHO has declared India as the diabetic capital of the world. Globally diabetes affects 246 million people, which is about 6% of the total adult population. It is the fourth leading cause of death by disease and every 10 seconds, a person dies from diabetes related causes in the world.

The growing number of diabetic patients and the current and probable future need for health care constraints will mean that high quality diabetic care will become increasingly difficult to be delivered in the future. This requires identification & implementation of cost effective treatment measures that will improve diabetes care in the long term, decrease the associated morbidity and reduce the high direct and indirect costs of its management. This can be possible by incorporation of cost effective and efficient medicinal plants in the management of diabetes. Toxicity and side effects of modern system of medicine have highlighted the importance and relevance of traditional medicinal plants. India has about 45,000 plant species and several thousands have been claimed to possess medicinal properties. Among Indian traditional medicinal plants several potential anti-diabetic plants and herbs are being used as part of our diet since prehistoric time.

In India, medicinal plants have been used as natural medicine since the days of Vedic glory. Historically, in ‘Atharva-Veda’ (about 200 B.C.) description of medicinal plants was made under a separate chapter ‘Ayurveda’. The medicinal values of plants have been tested by trial and error method for a long time by different workers and opened great opportunities for scientific investigations of herbal medicines for cure of diabetes and its complications.

Medicinal plants used to treat hyperglycemic conditions are of considerable interest for ethno-botanical community as they are recognized to contain valuable medicinal properties in different parts of the plant and a number of plants have shown varying degree of hypoglycemic and anti-hyperglycemic activity. The active principles of many plant species are isolated for direct use as drugs, lead compounds or pharmacological agents. Traditional plant medicines or herbal formulations might offer a natural key to unlock diabetic complications if utilized with care.

ABSTRACT

Traditionally, the rural communities of Trivandrum have been preserving small tracts of virgin forests or small groves since time immemorial due to strong religious beliefs anointed with the groves. These forest patches are biodiversity rich communities and a large number of medicinal plants of the region are confined to these groves only. The indigenous people use the plants for medicinal as well as religious purposes. Over the years, such forests have been attributed as a treasure trove of threatened species and dispensary of medicinal plants. During the investigation, 132 medicinal plants belonging to 63 families and 119 genera were recorded from 25 miniature sacred forests of Trivandrum district. This study was based on medicinal plants used in traditional health care by local and indigenous people. About 80% local people use different parts of plants for various ailments. The present finding revealed that most of the plants are used for skin diseases, cold, cough and fever, etc. Leaves are predominantly used than the other plant parts. Important families within the groves were Apocynaceae, Papilionaceae, Urticaceae, Combretaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Presence of a large number of monospecific families indicates immediate need of a conservation measure to secure sustainable utilization of medicinal plants of sacred groves of Trivandrum district.

1. Introduction

Plants are reliable sources for the treatment of diseases in different parts of the world (Eisenberb et al., 1993; Cowan, 1999; Hostettmann et al., 2000) and they have been unique sources of medicines and constituted the most common use of biodiversity (Hamilton, 2004; Hiremath and Taranath, 2010). Their use contributes significantly to primary healthcare delivery (Holetz et al., 2002) as they are regarded as invaluable sources of pharmaceutical products (Olalde, 2005).

Traditional medicine, with medicinal plants as their most important component, are sold in market places or prescribed by traditional healers in their homes (Von Maydell, 1996). As a result of this strong dependence on plants as medicines, many ethnopharmacological studies have been conducted to determine their safety, efficiency and discovery of new active principles from them. Only, 1,100 plants have so far been thoroughly examined for their medicinal practices in the world (Dobson, 1995).

Herbal medicine have been in use since time immemorial and are still the mainstay mainly in the developing countries because of their better cultural acceptability, better compatibility with the human body and lesser side effects (Kamraj, 2000).

India is known to be rich source of medicinal plants since ancient time. Medicinal plants like Aloe vera, Aswagandha, basil, mint, cinnamon, etc. are widely used to cure various ailments and for several health benefits. Some of the common diseases like common cold, headache, stomach problem, skin disease, etc. are treated in home by use of various herbs. Medicinal plants can be grown in the backyard or on the rooftop to meet the household demand. Cultivation practices of some of the medicinal plants are described in this chapter.

Tulsi

Tulsi or basil is considered to be a sacred plant with religious importance. It is grown in homes as an aromatic perennial shrub and used for medicinal purpose. Tulsi possess antimicrobial and antiviral properties with capacity to purify the air. It can be grown up to an altitude of 2000 m above mean sea level. This plant can be grown in pots and in home gardens. The leaves and twigs of the plant are used for medicinal purpose. The fragrant leaves and flowers are used in the form of tincture, tea or decoction for curing cold & cough, stomach disorders, skin diseases, etc. The plant is also rich in antioxidant, vitamin and calcium. There are two types of tulsi viz. green type and purple. It can be planted in the pots or in the beds.

Description of important medicinal plants

1. Introduction

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) is one of the most significant trees in tropical and subtropical homegardens and perhaps the most widespread and useful tree in the important genus Artocarpus. Jackfruit belongs to the family Moraceae. The word “jackfruit” comes from Portuguese jaca, which is derived from the Malayalam language term, Chakka. Jack fruit native to India and seen abundant in Western Ghats (Wangchu et al.,2013). Besides India, jackfruit is commonly grown in home gardens of tropical and sub-tropical countries especially Sri Lanka; Bangladesh, Burma, Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and Brazil. In India, it widely distributed in the states of Assam, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and considered to be the “Poor mans food” (Prakash et al., 2009). In Malayalam, jack fruit is called as “Chakka” while the ancient Indian language Sanskrit refers as Atibruhatphala (Baliga et al., 2011). The morphology of the tree varies with 10-30 m tall; with long tap root and dense crown producing the largest tree born fruit in the world. The fruit weight up to 50 kg, but average weigh is considered to be 10 kg, while only 30-35% of the bulb is edible. Jack fruit is considered as national fruit in Bangladesh and highly appreciated in India due to cheap and availability in summer seasons were food is scarce (Muralidharan et al., 1997). It is a monoecious tree and both male and female inflorescences are found on the same tree. The fertilization is by cross-pollination and the propagation is mostly through seeds. The complete fruit development process takes about three to seven months from the pollination, varying in different countries. Jackfruit consists of lower fleshy edible region (bulb), middle fused region (syncarp) and out spiney region (spike). When ripe the fruit get fleshy, outer spines widened and flesh get soft and yellow. Except the thorny outer bark and axis are not edible (Baliga et al., 2011). The jackfruits were classified based on their phonotypical and organoleptic characteristics with variation in bulb colour as well as shape, size, odour, flake size, flake colour and period of maturity. Two types of ecotypes are recognized, one with soft and spongy flakes or bulbs while other with firm carpels.

1. Introduction

Pummelo is considered as largest fruit among all the Citrus species from the Rutaceae family. It is also known as shaddock, papanus or chakotra. Although C. grandis (L.) Osbeck is more frequently used, however C. maxima (Burm.) Merr. is considered as correct under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (Singh and Navneet, 2017). It is considered as one of the four true species (natural, non-hybrid) of Citrus. The ltypical large size, thick rind is one of the causes for slow acceptance of pummelo in international market. However, it is presently considered as important fruit due to presence of various bio-active compounds related with human health and nutrition. The word ‘pummelo’ was originally derived from the Dutch word ‘pompelmoes’. The fruit is also named as ‘Shaddock’ after a Captain Shaddock who was believed to have introduced the fruit in Barbados on an East India Company ship on its way to England in the 17^th century. It is known by different names by different communities residing in India such as chakotra (Hindi), batabi lebu or jambura (Bengali), robab tenga (Assamese), nobab (Manipuri), ser trawk (Mizo), soh myngor or soh bah (Khasi), rabab tasing (Adi), papanas (Gujarati), chakota (Kannada), kambili naranga (Malayalam), pamparapanasa (Telugu), metukki or pampalimaku (Tamil) and bampara (Marathi) [Anon, 2019]. Pummelo can be distinguished from grapefruit by its larger size fruit, thicker albedo and the bunch bearing habit of grapefruit can also be considered for distinguishing it from pummelo (Scora et al., 1982). The crop is believed to have originated from South and Southeast Asia and it is now cultivated in many tropical and semi tropical countries. The top ten world producers of pummelo and grapefruit are USA, China, Mexio, South Africa, India, Argentina, Turkey, Cuba, Brazil and Tunisia (FAOSTAT, 2010). It is also cultivated in in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Chile, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka and Nepal. There is no report of its commercial cultivation in India till date; rather it is mainly grown in homestate gardens across the country including UP, Punjab, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. However, maximum genetic diversity in pummelo germplasm is found in North Eastern Region, West Bengal and Bihar (Singh et al., 2015).

11.1. Origin and distribution

• Originates in India

• Sikkim, West Bengal, Odisha, Upper Gangetic Plains and in Nilgiris, ascending to altitude of 1600 m.

• North-east, North-west, Southern as well as Central India, and extends into Myanmar and China.

11.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Whole plant

• Raw materials for production of steroidal drugs, steroid bearing solanum

• Yields a glyco alkaloid, solasodine, a nitrogen analogue of diosgenine.

8.1 Medicinal use of Bamboo in Cattle: The important parts of bans (Bambusa arundinacea) used are the leaf and stem, which contain choline, betain, nuclease, urease, cyanogenetic and glucoside. The leaf acts as an emmenagogue, stimulant, astringent, febrifuge, echbolic, and diuretic. It also acts against leprosy, tympany/bloat, diarrhea, retained placenta, threadworm, cough, and cold in horses. Flowering occurs once in ten to twelve years. The plant dries after flowering. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.2 Medicinal uses of Dendrocalamus Strictus: The leaf and other parts of kaban (Dendrocalamus strictus), which contain siliceous matter, are used as astringent and ecbolics in animals. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.3 Medicinal uses of Datura metel, D. alba, D. fastuosa: The leaf, root, fruit, and ripe seed of sadah datura (Datura metel) contain alkaloids such as hyoscyamine, hyoscine, atropine, scopalamine, allantoin, and vitamin C. They are used for treating insanity, fever with catarrh and cerebral complications, and the fruit is used to induce heat in animals and treat prolapse of uterus/ vagina. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.4 Medicinal uses of Dalbergia Sissoo: The stem bark, root, leaf, and mucilage of sisam (Dalbergia sissoo) contain tannin, dalberginone, dalbergin, allylphenol of latitontype, 5,7,4-trihydroxy-s-methoxyisoflorone, and are used for leprosy, boils, eruptions, to allay vomiting, and the oil is used for cutaneous afflictions. Mucilage of leaves mixed with sweet oil is applied in excoriations. (Parabia et al., 2000).

8.5 Medicinal uses of Cyperus Rotundus: The tubers of motha mutha (Cyperus rotundus) have essential oils, myristic and stearic acid, unstable alkaloid, b-seilinne, cyperenone, and are used as diuretic, emmenagogue, anthelmintic, stimulant, tranquilizer, and antipyretic. (Parabia et al., 2000).

16.1. Overview of Medium and Small Enterprises (MSE) Growth

In most developing countries, MSEs constitute the vast majority of firms, generating a substantial share of both overall employment and output. Given their significant economic role, one might expect MSE growth to drive overall increases in output and income levels. In many cases, however, their largest economic contribution appears to be one of maintaining, rather than generating new, employment and income for the poor. At an aggregate level, MSEs demonstrate impressive growth, 3 especially when compared with larger firms. However, many individual MSEs grow slowly or not at all, in some cases, due to a conscious decision on the part of the business owner. Overall growth rates are often fueled by the rapid expansion of a narrow group of highly performing MSEs. In dev e loping as well as in developed countries, there appears to be a small group of “gazelles”, firms that outperform their peers and drive aggregate employment and productivity growth for the small business sector. Why do some MSEs expand rapidly, while others stagnate? What factors account for the wide variation observed in MSE growth trajectories? This paper explores a wide array of specific factors, but it is first useful to consider a broader conceptual frame work of opportunities and capabilities. Clearly, opportunities for profitable business activities shape the ability of an entrepreneur to expand his or her firm.

2.1. Place of SME in Remeding The Nigerian Economic Paradox

This can best be explained by the two-gap economic model. The Two-Gap Models of development are contained in the Post-Keynesian growth models designed by Harrod and Domar. They tried to identify the pre-conditions for the economic growth of market economies. These two preconditions are es- sentially rooted in the Nigerian economy and these are (1) Internally: inad- equate savings would definitely translate to investment. The GAP between these two is called saving constraints (SAVING GAP). Closing this gap re- quires SME-financing. (2) Externally: inadequate foreign exchange arising from inability to export vis-à-vis high importation will lead to short fall in foreign exchange. The GAP between these two is called foreign exchange constraints (TRADE GAP) which can be corrected by facilitating the establishment of indigenous enterprises through a national embrace of the SME-initiatives. Ni- gerian leaders resorted to foreign aid assistance from developed countries, multilateral and bilateral international organizations to salvage the economy from total collapse; but, we can’t continue to carry the begging bow as our benefac- tors only give us fish and don’t teach us how to catch fish.

SEX IS VERY COSTLY

Large amounts of energy required to find a mate and do the mating: specialized structures and behavior required

Intimate contact provides route for infection by parasites (AIDS, syphillis, etc.)

Genetic costs: in sex you pass on only half your genes to your children

Males are an expensive luxury- in most species they contribute little to rearing offspring

But There are Some Advantages

More genetic diversity: more potential for survival of species when environmental conditions change

Shuffling of genes in meiosis (random separation of homologous chromosomes)

Crossing-over in meiosis (see below)

Fertilization (genes from 2 individuals brought together)

It is more common in dogs and frequently seen in the skin and oral cavity. It usually occurs in 5 to 11 years old dogs. Benign melanomas are solitary, circumscribed, alopecic firm and freely movable blue black coloured nodules in the skin. Malignant melanoma is sessile, polypoid to plaque like grey or brown black coloured granules in the skin with ulceration.

Clasping stemmed Solena or diversely leaved Melothria or creeping cucumber (Solena amplexicaulis Lam. Syn. Bryonia amplexicaulis (Lam), Melothria heterophylla (Lour), Melothria angulata Chakrav) is an indigenous cucurbit vegetable occuring in nature nearby cultivated areas on hedges or in open fields In Greek Solen means’ a tube,pipe’ refering to the nature of its flowers. The vernacular names are Bon-kundari, kudari, makal, mahakal (bengali), gometti (marati), kanduri, kuduri (bundelkhand), bankakra (champa), gometi (gujarati, anatmul, mahakal, taarali, kaduri (hindi),makirla (chattirgarh), kaage mari balli (kanarese) etc. This is a perennial vine, dioecious in nature. Tender fruits are used as salad, curry and  fried vegetable. It has significant medicinal value also.  In tribal regions of Orissa, fruits of Melothria are considered as delicacy. Visualizing the delicate nature of its fruits, it has great potential as a salad crop in  future.

Membrane technology is a proven separation method used on the molecular and ionic levels. Since the beginning of the 1970s, this technique has been adopted by the dairy industry. Membrane separation is widely used in dairy processing plants to perform an ever-increasing range of duties, e.g. pre-concentration, partial demineralization, protein separation, bacteria removal, brine clarification and waste water recycling. Representing one of the great technological developments occurring within the dairy industry during the second half of the twentieth century, progress was driven initially by the transfer of know-how gleaned from the application of cellulose acetate-based reverse osmosis (RO) and ultrafiltration (UF) membranes in other industrial sectors to whey processing. Later, new membrane materials and engineering designs were built on this initial achievement and opened up further opportunities for the application of the full spectrum of membrane separation systems that also includes Nan filtration (NF) and cross-flow microfiltration The integration of these unit operations into traditional dairy processes has led to the development of innovative ingredients as well as improvements in yield, efficiency and product quality. R & D work indicates potential RO application for concentration of milk for products like khoa, condensed and dried milk products and of UF application for the manufacture of shrikhand, paneer, chana and cheese. Application of these processes permits higher energy saving, higher yields and superior product quality compared to traditional processes of thermal evaporation.