eChapters

The term DNA sequencing refers to methods for determining the order of the nucleotide bases, adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine, in a molecule of DNA. In molecular terms ,the definitive understanding of a DNA molecule comes from determining its nucleotide sequence.The function of a gene can be deduced from its nucleotide sequence,for example by comparing the sequences of genes with known functions.

The first DNA sequences were obtained by academic researchers, using laborious methods based on 2 – dimensional chromatography in the early 1970s.  Following the development of dye-based sequencing methods with automated analysis, DNA sequencing has become easier and orders of magnitude faster.  Knowledge of DNA sequences of genes and other parts of the genome of organisms have become indispensable for basic research studying biological processes, as well as in applied field like diagnostic or forensic research.  The advent of DNA sequencing has significantly accelerated biological research and discovery.

1. Preparation of diluents 

The diluent is prepared one hour before semen collection so that it is stabilized. The diluent is prepared by mixing the ingredients and kept ready in water bath at 30oC. One of the diluents is detailed below

Participatory curriculum reorientation awareness-raising workshop for key stakeholders: In the present study focus group discussion and workshops were conducted to know the effectiveness of present curriculum of extension education with different stakeholders (Students UG, PG and Ph.D, Extension teachers, Field extension workers and farmers). Data were collected by using schedules regarding the important contents of present curriculum and most important for extension workers in the present situation to be included in curriculum

Collection trips were organized in a planned manner so as to cover every locality in all three seasons. Rural and remote areas which were thus far practically unexplored were surveyed more intensively. Frequency of collection trips was twice a week during first year; once a fortnight in third and once a month in the last and forth years. During the field work, observations on the habit and habitat; flower colour; fragrance; fruiting, colour of the bark and blaze in case of trees and shrubs; dominance and sociability of the collected plants were entered into rough field book. In the mean time information regarding medicinal or other uses, if any, were gathered from local inhabitants, vaidyas and haquims. Plants of small size were uprooted carefully and pressed as such. In case of larger plants, care was taken so that specimens should have flowers, fruits, leaves and stems of young and old stages. At least four specimens, for making herbarium sheets, were pressed at spot after tagging; and a tagged bundle of a few plants was taken in a polythene bag for study in laboratory.

The study entitled “SHG in Techno Economic Empowerment of Tribal Women” was conducted on the following specific objectives.

Empowerment of women in relation to SHG (ii) Profile of SHG

Structure and functions of SHG

SWOT analysis of SHG

Constraints of SHG and suggestion

Case studies

Research methodology is a detailed plan of investigation and the blue print of procedure for carrying out the research. In this chapter, discussion on the methodology has been made to understand the concepts, methods and techniques, which are utilized to design the study, collect information, analyzing data and interpreting the findings for revelation of truth and formulation of theories. The entire chapter has been broken up under following sub-heads for easy understanding:

1. Locale of research
2. Sampling design
3. Pilot study
4. Variables and their measurements
5. Methods of data collection
6. Statistical tools used for analysis of data

1. Introduction

The study of systematics and genetic diversity between or within different species, populations, and individuals is a central task for many disciplines of biological sciences. Systematic studies can indicate which genomes in the plant kingdom to search, sample, and study for the answers to questions relating to the evolution of chemical and physical structures and their synthesis or ontogeny as well as questions about the kinship of the individuals. Such studies would help find new and useful genes and provide information about the phylogenetic relationships among crop species and their wild relatives. The application of molecular markers has been the most active area of research in both animal and plant systematics. The analysis of the genetic variability within and among populations of the species is crucial for understanding their future maintenance and developing improvement as well as conservation programs.

Classical phenotypic characters, such as morphological traits, are still extremely useful but they can sometimes be influenced by environmental conditions. Therefore, during the past decade, classical strategies of evaluating genetic variability such as comparative anatomy, morphology, embryology and physiology have been increasingly complemented by molecular techniques. These include the analysis of chemical constituents (e.g., plant secondary metabolites) and, most importantly, the characterization of macromolecules. The development of molecular markers, which are based on polymorphisms found in proteins or DNA, has greatly facilitated research in a variety of disciplines such as taxonomy, phylogeny, ecology, genetics, and plant breeding (Weising et al. 1995). The greater utility of molecular markers derives from following five inherent properties that distinguish them from morphological markers.

1. Introduction

The objective of algal taxonomic collections is to represent the natural population, flora and diversity in size and form. Therefore, it is important to collect the representative samples seasonally from various habitats. Collection of information about the habitats and other details are also very important. For algal sampling the first thing to consider is how to collect the specimens. The freshwater algae show an ability to tolerate a wide range of environmental condition. Under natural conditions, they usually grow in mixed communities which may include many species and genera. Field study provides information about the site, environment, season and size and shape of the living algal thallus in its natural surroundings. Many algae can be tentatively identified by their appearance, shape and colour of thallus in a particular habitat. Algal population can be sampled in a number of different ways, depending on the nature of the habitat and the location of the algae within the water body. The specimens must be prepared carefully so that important morphological characters are displayed as fully and completely for further researches.

The methodology has been carefully considered in order to comprehend the idea, procedures, and approaches used in the design of the study, information gathering, data analysis, and finding interpretation for the identification of relevant truths and the development of hypotheses. The methodology and a process employed in the study are covered in this chapter.

5.1 Locale of the Research

The rural areas of Darjeeling-Pulbazar CD block, Jorebunglow-SukhiaPokhri CD block in Darjeeling district in West Bengal was selected for the study. The area had been selected for the study because of the availability of appropriate respondents, people as well as the local language.

5.2 Pilot Study

Prior to beginning the actual research, a pilot study was carried out to better understand the regions, its inhabitants, institutions, and programmes activities associated to the migration process in the research area. During the pilot study period, the respondents’ situational and historical data were gathered.

1. Introduction

The word ‘lichen’ has a Greek origin, which was referred to the superficial growth of fungus like organism on the bark of olive trees. Theophrastus, the Father of Botany coined the term ‘lichen’ during 300 BC and introduced this group of plants to the scientific world.

Lichen is a combination of two organisms, an alga and a fungus, living together in symbiotic association. Sometimes instead of an alga a cyanobacterium (blue-green alga) may be present in the lichen thallus. The algal component in the lichen is generally called as ‘photobiont’ as it contains photosynthetic pigment. The fungal part is called as ‘mycobiont’ (myco = fungus). The photobiont and the mycobiont loose their original identity in symbiotic association and the resulting organism is the lichen which behaves as a single organism, both morphologically and physiologically. Hence, the lichen is called as a composite organism. The lichen thallus is made 90% of mycobiont which provides shape, structure and colour to the lichen. In a lichen thallus whatever visible from outside is fungal part, which holds algae inside its body (Fig. 1) and therefore, the lichens are placed within the Kingdom - Fungi. The fungi present in lichens are called as ‘lichenized fungi’. Among the 20,000 lichen species present in the world, 98.9% of them belongs to Ascomycetes group while Bacidiomycetes and Deuteriomycetes groups are represented by only 0.1% and 1%, respectively.

Introduction

Age determination, a fundamental discipline within fisheries biology and ecology, is a critical tool for unraveling the life histories and population dynamics of aquatic species. The ability to accurately estimate the age of individual fish holds immense value in various scientific, management, and conservation contexts.

Seed Production

Systemized crop production is known as seed production. In seed production adequate care is given from the purchase of seeds upto harvest adopting proper seed and crop management techniques. The benefits of seed production are

• Higher income
• Higher quality seed for next sowing

Before carry out any ethnobotanical work, first define the goal of the assignment or study before selecting the approach, which best suits the interests, budget and schedule. Most of the methods used in ethnobotanical studies are time taking and costly because several field trips are required in several seasons for covering different ritual occasions and seasonal farming activities which are continue for a number of years for completion of an assignment. In this way, an assignment may be very long or short as per selection approach of an ethnobotanist. Long-term assignment or projects may be continue for several years and they require sufficient financial input. When sufficient financial add and time does not available to accomplished long term assignments, in that case a Rapid Ethnobotanical Appraisal (REA) can be done.

1. Introduction

Microbial diversity is becoming increasingly essential with the requirement to preserve the integrity, function and long-term sustainability of natural and managed ecosystems. However, our knowledge of the diversity of microbes remains obscure due to lack of appropriate approaches to evaluate the contribution of different components of the soil microbes to ecosystem. This lack of approaches together with the complex and heterogeneous matrix that soil microbes are embedded in, poses great challenges to understand the dynamics of microbial communities in soils (Nautiyal et al. 2010; Chauhan et al. 2013).

In classical terms, diversity is described as the total number of species present, i.e. species richness or species abundance, and the distribution of individuals among those species i.e. species evenness or species equitability. However, the incorporation of these two components into diversity indices has led to much controversy among ecologists (Atlas 1984). The Shannon-Weaver index (Shannon and Weaver 1949) is probably the most widely used index for measuring diversity of a microbial community. But this index, as many others that have been proposed, has its own limitations. A major difficulty is that both richness and evenness play a role in determining the value of the index. Therefore, any diversity index is a single value and thus cannot indicate the total make-up of a community. It is recommended that evenness, richness and diversity values should be calculated in order to obtain an objective assessment of community structure (Atlas 1984). From molecular point of view, diversity often refers to the number of different sequence type present in a habitat e.g. a soil (Ogram 2000). Measuring this type of diversity does not give information about the frequency of individual species, but it can give valuable information about changes in the community structure and species richness in response to changes in the physico-chemical properties of the soil and soil management practices (Nautiyal et al. 2010).

Solid formulations such as dust, wettable powder or granules, the active ingredient is mixed with inert material. The concentration is expressed as:

Active ingredient (%) in the total weight of commercial product.

I. Detection of Castor Husk in Oil Cakes and Oil Seed Meals (Method of ISI, (BIS), IS: 10165-1982)
Principle

The method is based on the fact that castor husk is not bleached under the conditions which cause the bleaching of almost all other materials of vegetable origin likely to be present in an oilcake. The method consists of the treatment of the material with dilute alkali and acid solutions followed by treatment with bleaching powder solution and the isolation of the unbleached castor husk.

Introduction

The main objective in analysing fertilizers is to assess their quality. The analysis examines both their physical and chemical composition. The quality of fertilizers is stated by the manufacturers and, in most countries, it is statutorily notified. Hence, analysis is carried out to determine whether the stated quality meets the statutorily notified standards or not. Together with the statutory notified composition of the fertilizers, the testing methods are specified. In situations where the testing methods are not notified, the prevalent standard methods are followed. Generally, the term fertilizer refers to mineral fertilizers, which are manufactured chemical products of standard composition, while the term manures refers to organic manures, compost, agro-industrial wastes, etc. The compositions of organic fertilizers, unlike mineral fertilizers, are quite variable and, thus, difficult to regulate precisely.

Fertilizer quality is notified in terms of physical and chemical characteristics. The physical parameters include moisture content and particle size. The chemical parameters refer to the amount and form of nutrients, and to various impurities that may be toxic to plants above a critical limit, e.g. biuret in urea. The efficiency of a fertilizer depends on its form of nutrient content. A phosphatic fertilizer may have water-soluble, citrate-soluble, water-insoluble or citrate-insoluble forms of phosphate. A nitrogenous fertilizer may contain ammoniacal, nitrate and amide forms of N in various proportions.

Straw represents a category of low-density feed characterized by a high concentration of structural carbohydrates, specifically cellulose and hemicellulose, while exhibiting low levels of carbohydrates, nitrogen and minerals, along with variable lignin content. Lignin serves as a physical barrier, inhibiting the microbial degradation of these materials. Straw is having low digestibility due to following reasons:
• Reduced voluntary intake due to unappealing taste.
• Low digestibility and nutritional value.
• Nutritional deficiencies, particularly in crude proteins, essential minerals, and vitamins.
• The presence of anti-nutritional components such as lignin, silica, tannins, and oxalates.
The primary aim of treating low-quality roughage includes:
• Enhancing voluntary intake by improving palatability.
• Increasing digestibility to boost the intake of digestible energy.
• Minimizing losses during digestive processes.
• Breaking down cellulose and hemicellulose from lignin and silica to enhance digestibility.
• Expanding the surface area available for microbial action and enzyme activity, thereby improving digestibility.
• Reducing bulkiness through densification.
The processing of low-quality roughages can be achieved through various methods.

Lipids are naturally occurring fat like substances insoluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, ether, and chloroform etc. Some of the phospholipids are even soluble in water. All the lipids do not resemble fats.
Lipids are an important component of living cells. Together with carbohydrates and proteins, lipids are the main constituents of animal cells. Lipids include fatty acids, neutral fats, waxes and steroids (like cortisone). Compound lipids (lipids complexed with another type of chemical compound) comprise the lipoproteins, glycolipids and phospholipids.
Properties of lipids
Lipids are non-polar molecules a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils yield high energy and are responsible for different functions within the body. It is stored in the adipose tissue of the body. Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed of hydrocarbon chains. Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for different life processes. Lipids are a class of compounds distinguished by their insolubility in water and solubility in nonpolar solvents. It is important constituent of cell membrane in biological systems, a mechanical barrier that divides a cell from the external environment.
Most of the lipids or fats are demonstrated by using fat soluble dyes. The lipid soluble dyes have greater affinity for fats, lipids, lipoproteins and triglycerides. The fat soluble dyes are:

Introduction and Scope

Plant and soil testing enable scientific assessment of the needs of the plant for nutrient elements and of the capacity of the soil to supply them. The nutrient elements enter the plant in ionic form from the soil solution. Ion transport to the root surface may take place through ion diffusion and bulk transport (mass flow). Mass flow is the sweeping along of ions as water moves to the root. It is particularly important for ions that are not absorbed on soil colloids such as nitrates and sulphates. Because of mass flow, a plant deficient in N can extract all the nitrates from the soil. Potassium, phosphate and the micronutrient cations are absorbed on soil colloids with various degrees of affinity and are greatly retarded in movement with the soil water. Diffusion (movement along a concentration gradient) is the main mode of transport from the solid phase to the root surface for these non-mobile ions. There is also a possibility that some of them are absorbed by a direct exchange of an ion, usually hydrogen, between the root surface and ions absorbed on soil colloids. Most ions are sorbed by the root against a concentration gradient and, thus, the process involves the use of metabolic energy. The fact that nutrient uptake is an active process explains some of its peculiarities. Plants not only accumulate nutrients against a concentration gradient, they are also able to select from the nutrients at the root surface according to their requirements (preferential uptake).