eChapters

Terms associated with cropping and farming systems are:

1. Cropping system: is an important component of a farming system. It represents cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology which determine their makeup.
2. Cropping pattern: means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a unit area. It indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow in an area.
3. Cropping scheme is a plan according to which crops are grown on individual plot of a farm during a given period of time with the object of obtaining maximum return from each crop without impairing soil fertility. Thus a cropping scheme is related to the most profitable use of resources, land, labour, capital, and management.
4. Multiple cropping: Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one calendar year is known as multiple cropping. It is intensification of cropping in space and time dimensions. It includes intercropping, mixed cropping and sequence cropping.
5. Quadruple cropping: Growing of four crops in a year in sequence.
6. Competition effect: Competition of intercropped spp. For light, nutrients, water, carbon dioxide, and other growth factors.
7. Complementary effect: Effect of one component on another which enhances growth and productivity.

Various components of farming systems are as under

1. Cropping system

A system is set of elements which depend on each other and interacting among themselves. Farming system consists of several enterprises like cropping system, dairying, piggery, poultry, fishery, bee keeping, etc. These enterprises are interrelated. The end products and wastes of one enterprise are used as inputs in other. The wastes of cow, dung used as FYM in crop production and straw is used as feeding material for cow. Bullock is used for field preparation.

Cropping system is an important component of a farming system. It represents cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm enterprises and available technology which determine their makeup.

Cropping pattern: means the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time in a unit area. It indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow in an area. It indicates the early sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow in an area. Crop sequence and crop rotation are generally used synonymously. Crop rotation refers to recurrent succession of crops on the same piece of land either in a year or over a longer period of time. Component crops are so chosen so that soil health in not impaired.

The prosperity of any country depends upon the prosperity of its people. Food, clothing, shelter, health, education, security, roads, electricity and drinking water are the today’s basic needs. Farmers produce food. About 70 % of Indian population is engaged in farming. Therefore, prosperity of India would depend upon the prosperity of its farmers. This in turn depends upon the adoption of improved technology and judicious allocation of resources (land, labour, capital, machinery etc). Human race depends more on farm products for their existence than anything else since food and clothing – the prime necessaries are products of farming. Even for industrial prosperity, farming forms the basic raw material. To sustain and satisfy as many as his needs, the farmers include crop production, livestock, poultry, fisheries, beekeeping etc. in their farms. Earlier subsistence was the important objective of farming. Farmers took many activities such as planting of fruit trees in their farms or on the common lands just for the welfare of mankind without expecting anything in return. The kind of farming where subsistence and welfare of mankind were the main objectives is designated as mixed farming. Farming today is also a mix of enterprises. However, higher profitability without altering ecological balance is important in farming. A set of agricultural activities organized while preserving land productivity, environmental quality and maintaining desirable level of biological diversity and ecological stability is designated as “Farming System”. Here the emphasis is mainly on a system rather than on gross output.

In other words “farming system” is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustain agricultural production to meet diverse requirement of the farm household while preserving the resource base and maintaining high environmental quality. The farming system in its real sense will help to lift the economy of agriculture and standard of living of the farmers.

In India many medicinal plants traditionally used by tribal and other sources have been recorded by different authors, workers and researchers. Many plants that can cause symptomatic relief for various ailments have also been established. Attempts have been made by different scientists to ascertain the active principles behind the herbal cure of certain diseases. Ayurvedic preparations from plant sources have been developed in our country to certain extent. Many Homeopathic medicines have also been procured from plants and herbs. Scientific conferences in State, National and International levels are being held on Traditional Asian Medicines to ascertain the scientific truth behind them. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar and many other Institutes of our country are doing creditable work to isolate the composition of medicinal plants. Many useful compounds have been isolated from different medicinal flora and their efficiency has been established scientifically. Good numbers of Allopathic medicines prepared on the basis of herbal cures are flooding in the market in different trade marks. Still the country is to find preventive and curative medicines for Cancer, AIDS, Thalsamia and other such deadly diseases. Recent International Conference on Cancer held at New Delhi came out with a suggestion that certain flora could be explored for the possibility of treating cancer without side effects. When we are starting to realize the importance of flora for a healthy living and scientists are in search of drugs from the vegetation to irradicate diseases deforestation is reampant in our country. Our environment has been contaminated due to various types of pollutants from industries and other anthropogenic sources. At this juncture man has to maintain a balance to achieve harmony of both the factors for our better living. The tribal dweller who is considered as the ‘Maa in the forest’ has to be recognized first so far his knowledge in medicinal plants is concerned. After ascertaining the utility of medicinal plants they are to be protected, propagated both by Government and Public. Scientific experiments are to be carried out to establish the active principles behind the herbal drugs. Herbal gardens are to be instituted at different places by adopting modern biotechnological methods. There is a need to make joint efforts by the workers from the fields of Allopathic, Ayurved and Homeopathic, as a step towards “the irradication of diseases”. Such an inter-disciplinary work on medicinal plants may throw a new light for achieving success, in finding out medicines without side effect. In this context, Pharmacologists have to play a vital role while preparing the doses of drugs from plant sources.

In Comparison to Literature : A Comparative Account

Medicinal plants constitute a group of industrially important crops which are of great value for domestic use and for export. Plant-best drugs are being increasingly preferred in medical science. The use of various parts of several drug plants to cure specific ailments has been in vogue from ancient times on our indigenous medicine.

We are fortunate to have rich heritage in the form of information available from tribal areas gathered by the tribals through experience of generation in the form of folklore medicine. It is however unfortunate that full potential of these crops has not been scientifically explored. As compared to agricultural crops on which researches have been done for getting better varieties for high yields diseases resistance and better quality comparatively, little work has been done on the medicinal plants. The Ethnomedicinal plants are enumerated in subsequent pages and in Table 1 with their local name and families.

Cloud with dense forest and valleys the present Kalahandi district, Orissa comprises of ex–state of kalahandi and exzamindari of khariar minus Kasipur. The present district of Kalahandi district of Orissa state was a part of south Kasipur Kingdom. It continued as a princely state up to Nov. 1949 and then merged with orissa state the district Kalahandi was created out of exprinciply state of Kalahandi with addition of ex-zamindari areas of Khariar which formerly a part of Sambalpur district. Again Nuapada and Nawarangapur area separated from it and the present form of the district exist.

The modern Kalahandi district occupies the south western part of Orissa and is situated between 19 degree 10’ North Latitude and between 82 degree 30’ and 83 degree 50’ longitude. To the northern side of Kalahandi district Balangir, to south eastern side Rayagada district is situated. To south westen side Nawarangpur district, to the Southern side Koraput district and to north Nuapara district and western side Chhatisgarh are situated. The Kalahandi district extends over an area of 7920 sq. kms, which is 5.09% of total geographical area of Orissa and occupies 7th position in area of the state of Orissa. According to 2001 census, total population of the district is 13, 34,772 which has 3.64% of the whole state and density of population is 168 per sq. k.m. In the district, 2 subdivisions, 4 revenue Tahasils, 13 blocks, and 195 Gram Panchayats and 2205 villages are existing.

Orissa is a land of tribes and one of India’s most important forests state providing home to a very large forest dependant tribal population. Represented by 22.5% of the total population of the states of tribes of orissa, which are scheduled as 62 different ethnic groups (Biswal et al., 1997). The orissan ethnographic scenario includes as many as 62 scheduled Tribes are enlisted in the presidential orders numbering 5,915,067 persons in 1981 census constituting 22.43% of the total population of the state (26,370 and 21). Distribution of tribal population in the district during 1981 census was uneven. Their number was more in inland districts like koraput, Mayurbhanj, Sundargarh, Keonjhar, Phulbani and Kalahandi than in the coastal plain consisting of Balasore, Cuttack, Puri and Ganjam (Mohanty and Chowdhury, 1990). Different tribes exists in orissa are namely divided into three groups on ethnolinguistic basic (i) Austro-Asiatic (ii) Dravidian and (iii) Indo-Aryan (Behura, 1993). The important communities are Saora, Bathudi, Bhumija, Bhuiyan, Saunti, Gond, Kharia, Kandha, Kisan, Kolha, Munda, Oraon, Paraja, Santal, Saora and Shabar (Behura, 1993). From different district of Orissa different ethno botanist worked on geographical basis or on a particular tribe, on a particular plant, food habit, and religious occasion, social customs etc. district wise enumeration is given below.

Jain, (1971) studied magico-religious beliefs pertained to plants prevalent among different tribals of the state. Rai chaudhuri et al., (1975) reported ethno botanical uses of 38 species from the state 81 plant species used by the rural folk for antifertility, as medicine, fibre and food were reported by (Saxsena and Dutta, 1975). Saxsena et al., (1981) gave an account of ethnobotany of 83 plant species.

India is a varitable emporium of herbs. The medicinal use of plants was known to the inhabitants of India from time immemorial. As per Indian Materia Medica, a large number of vegetables, different parts and products of flora and fauna came into use for the treatment of diseases by ancient Hindus. Generally the practitioners, of various Indian system of medicines used to utilise the flora and fauna found in their environment and accept those which were found useful after trial.Ayurved comes from Atharvaveda. There are hundred fourteen hymns which describe some diseases and medicinal practices. This was the era around 2000 B.C. The books written on Ayurved were rewritten by ‘Charak’. It is known s ‘Charak Sanhinta’. They were written in eight volumes having hundred twenty chapters in Sanskrit Sushrut wrote in similar way under the name of ‘Sushrut Sanhita’ having ten thousand verses in six-volumes under one hundred eighty six chapters. He described ‘Surgery’. Kashyap wrote on ‘Paediatrics’ and Vatsayana wrote on ‘Sexology’. Hence, very rich and old heritage of Ayurved is prescribed and documented in Hindu Vedas. This was the age when art of ‘Pharmacy’ was introduced. There after came the ‘Creative age’, when the active principles of medicinal drugs were adopted. According to Charak, in the Chapter ‘Kalpasophan’, the drugs differ with respect to land, season, source, flavour, taste, potency, post digestive effects and specification and also with respect to their body, morbid tendency, constitution, age, vitality, gastric fire, proclivities, homologation and stage of diseases.Accepting those ideas in 1864 with the help of the then king of ‘Jamnagar’ the famous Baidya, Jandu started a small factory (Rasasala) in Jamnagar. Then in 1910 Jandu Pharmaceutical works was established in Bombay to manufacture Ayurvedic medicines in large scale. Thereafter many small factories were started in different parts of India. The vedic period around 1800 B.C. The classic period of the Indian medicine begins about 600 B.C., where the treatments of various types of ailments have been indicated. Due to Industrial evolution and general economic growth in Eastern countries, there was growth of a systematic Eastern Medicine. Gradually people started to develop confidence in allopathic and ayurvedic medicines were neglected.Many allopathic medicines which were established as life saving drugs, were later found to be harmful to humans. Such medicines have been proved to have side effects which cause damage to health. The modern man of scientific C1ptitude again tries to rotate the wheel of history in search of an alternative source/truth from natural resources. With this view many attempts have been made in India and abroad to unravel the truth, described in Vedas with regards to medicinal effects of flora and fauna. Although the Allopathic medicines are found to dominate over the Ayurvedic medicines, many remote areas of tribals are still continuing the traditional practice of using medicine from their natural surroundings.

ABSTRACT

Medicinal plants are known to contain innumerable bioactive compounds that play an important role in conventional as well as western medicine. These bioactive molecules occur in plants as secondary metabolites, which have pharmacological relevance and aid in defense mechanism. In India, herbal medicines have been the basis of treatment and cure for various diseases. Conventionally, natural products have been tested as crude extracts containing complex mixtures of compounds, which if showing a desired activity, require a process of purification and identification of the active components, which can be lengthy and efficient.

In order to understand the function of these active compounds, X-ray crystallographic studies are carried out.

The present study involves the three dimensional structure analysis of purified compounds from the plants Phyllanthus amarus, Sphaeranthus indicus, Scoparia dulcis and Mangifera indica and Leonotis nepetaefolia.

ABSTRACT

Nature provides a wealth of information on natural products with novel architectur and very high medical potential. Given the enormous medical and economic impac of natural product pharmaceuticals we have obvious reasons to improve the activitie of the existing compounds and to discover new metabolites. Although natural product are a proven source of drug candidates they exert powerful physiological effects in one form or other. Only a small proportion of these compounds satisfy the rigorou criteria set by the pharmaceutical company. Also the amount of active compound isolated from the natural products is so small that it is difficult to exploit it in an industrial level. So there arises a need to synthesise synthetic compounds which ma be tested for bioactivity from the easily available starting materials by a simpl methodology. The quest for finding new drugs against various diseases such as AIDS cancer etc. act as a motivating factor in designing synthesis of new materials. In thi way most of the compounds synthesized can be tested for bioactivity to be effectivel used to fi ht a ainst certain dreadful diseases.

We have synthesised some polycyclic heterocycles through cycloaddition methodology and explored the bioactivity of the products. These molecules have basic skeleton of the natural products and possess the biological properties of the natural products. Thus they may be termed as pseudo natural products. These compounds are screened for antifungal and antibacterial activities and are found to possess bioactivity.

Keywords : Heterocyclic compounds, antifungal activity, DMSO, pathogens, inhibition zone.

ABSTRACT

Natural sources have been exploited since the dawn of civilization for the sustenance of mankind. With the passage of time numerous medicines were discovered to treat various maladies utilizing the vast resources of land and the sea, along with the knowledge base support of folklores and folk medicines of different regions of the world, Marine natural products chemistry has gained prominence during the last four and half decades with a view to harnessing the vast potential of the sea particularly in search of drugs by virtue of modern science and technology. Products of marine algae or seaweeds have been used as medicine as well as food and feed and latterly as nutraceuticals. Advanced societies of the world consume seaweed extracts (in the form of alginates, agars and carrageenans) every day in their foods or pharmaceuticals that is complemented by the excellent safety records of commonly ingested species. In this account, I will be focusing on the health care applications of seaweeds.

Health care has two aspects e.g. healing or amelioration of disease conditions with medicines and the other being sustenance of the health system. Seaweeds have been reported to be the source of many bioactive and nutritionally important compounds e.g. antibacterial, antiviral, immunomodulator, cytotoxic, anticancer, neurotoxic, blood anticoagulant, antifertility, vitamins, proteins and minerals. Status of these activities in India and elsewhere in the world has been discussed.

ABSTRACT

Indole alkaloids gramine, tyramine and tryptamine were isolated from the aerial part of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. for the first time and their antimicrobial properties agains microbial pathogens were studied. Structures of the compounds were elucidated base upon the spectroscopic data such as ¹H-NMR, ¹³C- NMR and MS. The evaluations o the crude extract and the alkaloids for their efficacy in inhibiting the growth of huma pathogenic bacteria and dermatophytes were carried out in vitro. The crude extrac was effective in inhibiting the growth of all the tested microorganisms. Tryptamin and tyramine did not inhibit microbial growth when tested individually, but in combination the growth inhibition of Klebsiella pneumoniae was prominent. Gramin was the most effective one in inhibiting the growth of all the tested microbial pathogens

1. Introduction

Plant metabolites are the major sources of pharmaceutical food additives, fragrances and pesticides. It is estimated that the market potential for herbal drugs in the western world alone could range from US $ 4.9 billion to 47 billion by the year 2000 if the AIDS epidemic continues unchecked (Biotechnology and Development, 1991). A similar situation exists for plant based food additives, fragrances and bio-pesticides. The natural resources for plant based chemicals are limited but the consumer preference for natural products is greater. Alternative avenues for plant products have gained prominence during the past few years. In recent years, plant Biotechnology has gained considerable importance for the production of phytochemicals (Heble, 1996).

During the past three decades, several phytochemicals with biological activities have been identified from higher plants for plant tissue culture industry (Verpoorte et al., 1991). Vincristine, vinblastine, artemisinin, taxol and podophyllotoxin are in the list of approved drugs. Some products under clinical trials are forskolin, castanospermine, ginkgolides and hyperin (Heble, 1996). In recent years, there has been renewed interest in screening higher plants for novel biologically active products particularly to combat such ailment that have defined synthetics and antibiotics. This has resulted in the development therapeutics used in the treatment of cancer, hypertension, AIDS, malaria and other diseases.

Introduction

Solanum trilobatum L., an important medicinal plant, belonging to Solanaceae is widely distributed in South Asia and has been used in Indian traditional medicinal systems of Siddha and Ayurveda. The members of Solanaceae accumulate steroidal alkaloids based on a C₂₇ cholestane skeleton, e.g. solasodine and tomatidine. Recently, mixtures of solasodine glycosides have been successfully used for the treatment of certain human skin carcinomas (Cham, 1994). Solasodine glycosides have antineoplastic activity in cell culture, animals and in humans (Cham and Daunter1990). It has been demonstrated that specific endogenous lectins which are present on the plasma membranes of susceptible cells recognize and bind the sugar moiety of the solasodine glycosides and the glycosides are subsequently internalized and cause cell death (Cham and Daunter1990). Hence the present study was undertaken to isolate the solasodine from S. trilobatum.

ABSTRACT

An efficient and reliable micropropagation and mycorrhization techniques were established for a medicinal plant Solanum trilobatum L., using internodal explant. Callus formation occurred from both the cut ends of explants cultured on MS medium supplemented with 2,4-D (3.0 mg/l). Direct shoot and multiple shoot formation were noticed from the proximal cut end of explants on BA (2.0 mg/l) alone and BA (2.0 mg/ l) + NAA (0.5 mg/l). Root formation was directly induced from the basal cut end of explants cultured on IBA (1.0 mg/l). In vitro plantlet regeneration has been achieved on BA (2.0 mg/l) + IBA (1.0 mg/l). After 4 weeks, well-developed in vitro plantlets were hardened in plastic cups filled with sterile soil and vermiculite (3:1). During acclimatization, sterile Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) fungal spores were added for enhance the survivability of in vitro plants in the field condition. The level of biochemical changes and increased survivability were studied in 10 weeks old plants inoculated with spores of Glomus mosseae and Gigaspora margarita.

ABSTRACT

A rapid micropropagation technique have been established for Solanum trilobatum L., a medicinal plant from internodal explant. Callus formation was observed from both cut ends of explants cultured on MS medium supplemented with 2,4-D (3.0 mg/l). Direct shoot and multiple shoot formation were noticed from explants (proximal cut end) on BAP (2.0 mg/l) alone and BAP (2.0 mg/l) + NAA (0.5 mg/l). Root formation was directly produced from the basal cut end of explants cultured on IBA (1.0 mg/l). In vitro plantlet regeneration has been achieved on BAP (2.0 mg/l) + IBA (1.0 mg/l). Regenerated plants were transferred to sterile vermiculite and soil mixture (3:1). In vitro propagated plants were grew successfully under the field conditions. In vitro propagation can be a useful tool for the conservation of this medicinal species.

ABSTRACT

Advances in biotechnology, particularly methods for culturing plant cells and tissues can provide new means for the commercial processing of even rare plants and th chemicals they produce. These new technologies will extend and enhance the usefulness of plants as renewable resources of valuable chemicals. Aristolochic acid is mainly found in the genus Aristolochia. Aristolochic acid has been shown to hav anti-tumour activity and has been recommended for its activity against various effect of snakebite and its capacity to inhibit phospholipase A2 or other enzymes Considering the importance of medicinal use of A. bracteolata and A. indica, in th present study, they were selected for in vitro development and rapid multiplication o plant through tissue culture. The study was undertaken to enhance the in vitr production of Aristolochic acid in different tissue cultures. Cell suspension culture was established from friable calli of both the species in M liquid medium. Bergmann plating technique was carried out for cell line selection fo more production of Aristolochic acid. Primary transformation was carried out by Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 / pTOK233 with Gus and hpt genes to confirm the transgenic potential of A. bracteolata and A. indica. In order to enhance the productio of aristolochic acid in in vitro culture condition, the physical, chemical and biologica conditions were altered. Aristolochic acid was isolated, identified and purified from naturally growing plants as well as from tissue culture plants and all other cultur stages.

ABSTRACT

Advances in biotechnology, particularly methods for culturing plant cells and tissues, can provide new means for the commercial processing of even rare plants and the chemicals they produce. These new technologies will extend and enhance the usefulness of plants as renewable resources of valuable chemicals. Aristolochic acid is mainly found in the genus Aristolochia. Aristolochic acid has been shown to have anti-tumour activity and has been recommended for its activity against various effects of snakebite and its capacity to inhibit phospholipase A₂ or other enzymes. Considering the importance of medicinal use of A. bracteolata and A. indica, in the present study, they were selected for in vitro development and rapid multiplication of plant through tissue culture. The study was undertaken to enhance the in vitro production of Aristolochic acid in different tissue cultures. Cell suspension culture was established from friable calli of both the species in MS liquid medium. Bergmann plating technique was carried out for cell line selection for more production of Aristolochic acid. Primary transformation was carried out by Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA4404 / pTOK233 with Gus and hpt genes to confirm the transgenic potential of A. bracteolata and A. indica. In order to enhance the production of aristolochic acid in in vitro culture condition, the physical, chemical and biological conditions were altered. Aristolochic acid was isolated, identified and purified from naturally growing plants as well as from tissue culture plants and all other culture staes

ABSTRACT

According to WHO report, over 80% of the world population relies on traditional medicine, largely plant based for their primary healthcare needs. India has 15 Agroclimatic zones, 12 ecoregions and 47,000-plant sp. and is one of the 12-mega biodiversity centres. The Indian Systems of Medicine have identified 1500 medicinal plants, of which 500 species are used in the preparation of commercial drugs. These medicinal plants contribute to 80% of the raw materials used in the preparation of drugs.