eChapters

Tandem Selection
Selection is practiced for one trait at a time until satisfactory improvement has been achieved in this trait. Then, selection efforts for this trait are relaxed and efforts are directed towards the improvement of a second, then for a third and so on, until finally each trait has been improved to the desired level. This method is the least efficient of all the three methods, from the stand point of the amount of genetic progress made for the time and effort by the breeder. Efficiency of tandem selection depends a great deal upon the genetic correlation between the traits selected for. If the genetic correlation is positive and desirable, improvement in one trait by selection would automatically result in improvement in the other trait not selected for, and then the method could be quite efficient. Otherwise, if there were little or no genetic correlation between the traits, which means that they are inherited independently, the efficiency would be less. When the two traits are negatively correlated, improvement in one trait is nullified or neutralized by the regression in the other. For example, in poultry, selection for egg number will result in reduction in egg weight, as they are negatively correlated.
Independent Culling Level (ICL) Method
Method of selecting two or more traits but they both need to meet a minimum standard. It is very strict that if the animal didn’t meet one trait it would be rejected. Independent Culling level (ICL) Method selects several characteristics or traits simultaneously.
Breeders set minimum or maximum culling levels or standards or criteria for each trait of selection objectives. Any animal not meeting all criteria is not selected for use in the breeding program regardless of the level of excellence of other traits. With each successive generation of progeny, the minimum quality of each characteristic is raised thus ensuring improvement of these traits. For example, a breeder has a view of the minimum requirements for milk yield, fat yield, and service period for which cows are breeding. The breeder will determine what the minimum acceptable quality for each of these traits will be for progeny to be folded back into her breeding program. Any animal that fails to meet the quality threshold for any one of these criteria is culled from the breeding program. Thereby, it causes the loss of excellent genes from the population for a particular trait.

An animal breeder usually interested in various economic traits and when wishes to improve them in the herd/flock, he has three general methods at his disposal. Tandom method, independent culling level method and  index selection method.

Tandom Method

It involves selection for one trait at a time and until it reaches at a satisfactory level, and then for a third trait etc. This method is applicable only when the different traits in question are entirely independent or positively genetically associated to each other. Its effectiveness decreases with the increase in number of traits. This method is least desirable of all the methods.

Objectives • Seminal evaluation and processing • Evaluation of bull fertility on the basis of its seminal characters • To make the Artificial insemination programme successful History Related to Semen Collection • The use of artificial vagina was started by Milovanov for semen collection. Before that method of placing the cotton ball in vagina was used. • AV for Dog was discovered by Amantea in 1914. Milovanov discovered AV for Bull, ram and stallion. Mckenzie discovered AV for boar (1931). • The electroejaculatory method of semen collection was initiated in a bull by Laplaud & Cassou and in ram by Gunn. • Burrows and Quinn (1937) developed the method of abdominal massage and pressure to collect semen in poultry.

2.1 Simple Random Sampling
The simplest and common most method of sampling is simple random sampling. In this procedure, the sample is drawn unit by unit with equal probability of selection for each unit at each draw. It is sometimes referred to as unrestricted random sampling.

2.1 Simple Random Sampling

The simplest and common most method of sampling is simple random sampling. In this procedure, the sample is drawn unit by unit with equal probability of selection for each unit at each draw. It is sometimes referred to as unrestricted random sampling.

2.1.1 Definition

“A sampling procedure which gives equal chance to all possible samples each of size n which can be drawn from a population of size N, is called simple random sampling.”

There is urgent need to increase the production in order to meet the demand for the exploding population. This could be achieved by applying various modern methodologies in selection and breeding of livestock. Increasing the productivity through genetic improvement requires adequate identification and intensive selection of genetically superior sires. About 93 per cent of the total herd improvement comes from breeding of young bulls from tested sires and only six per cent from selection of dams.
With the advances in artificial insemination and cryopreservation of semen, a sire has a potential of serving 3/4th million cows and producing 1/4th million progenies.
Thus, selection of bulls is of great importance in dairy herd improvement.
For maximising the genetic gain by sire selection, it is essential that the method of estimating breeding values of sires should be unbiased and efficient. The breeding value refers to the average genetic effect of the genes passed on by the individual to its offspring and is estimated to know whether the individual is genetically superior to other individuals or not for the trait concerned.

Progeny testing in India was introduced in the late 1950’s the first sire index in our country was suggested by Krishnan (1956) which was, however, similar to the herdmate and contemporary comparison methods. Robertson and Rendel (1954) stated that an efficient method of sire evaluation should satisfy two conditions: 

Since commencement of the settlement of world, the search for food had been uppermost, thereby, practising the conservation of food is a basic need for ensuring its ample supply to human being. The problem of food storage is growing fast day by day with the increase in the population. The existing shortage of protein and caloric requirements will not only be solved by growing more food and resorting to family planning measures but also by saving the produce from deterioration and wastage, and its efficient allocation to meet the growing requirement of population. In countries with varied climatic conditions, it is a steady struggle of man with insects, mites, rodents and microbes in getting the food stuff.

Need and Objectives of Storage

Since times immemorial, man adopted a particular system of storage and certain produce storage standards. Some of the storage methods are still in use in several regions, in the capacity varying from one kg to several hundred quintals, like hollowed gourds, skin bags, mud bins, excavated stones, woven baskets, underground pits etc., particularly in the tropics. The problems of storage in developing countries are more acute than that in well developed countries and a considerable disparity seems to be there in food availability. All need a food supply that should be nutritious, clean; free from insects, rodents, birds, other animal filth and harmful chemical residues. There are two types of needs, one immediately after harvest and the other in off season. There is no need of storing the produce for immediate requirement but for the latter case, the need to conserve produce properly is inevitable. Further, the need for storage has always arisen for one reason to distribute commodity in deficit production areas and the other based on improved quality standards. In all the way, therefore; growers, processors, transporters and warehouse owner must assist to comply with these requirements.

Vegetable breeding is the purposeful genetic manipulation of qualities in vegetable crops to create new varieties with a set of desired characteristics that are better suited for cultivation, give better yield, quality and are resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses. Vegetable breeding can be accomplished through many different techniques ranging from plant introduction, simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics, to more complex molecular techniques. Classical plant breeding includes hybridization followed by selection and mutation to develop the desirable plant types. With the advancements in genetics, molecular biology and in vitro culture, different molecular genetics tools are also being used in vegetable breeding.
Sexually propagated vegetable crops
1. Plant Introduction
The term “Plant introduction” describes the movement of crop plants, species, varieties, wild species, etc. from their original growing sites to other locations where it was not grown earlier. Plant introduction is essentially the method of cultivating crop plants in a new environments. The agro-climatic conditions can differ greatly depending on the origin of the plant species and the area where they are introduced. Plant introduction is a time-honored strategy for improving crop diversity.

1. Forecasting Rain and Frost

i. Behavior of Ants and Goats:

• Ants: When ants come out of their nest carrying their pupae, it indicates that rain will come soon.

• Goats: Goats can sense approaching rain and signal it 2 to 3 days in advance through behavioral changes. They change their usual resting places, show little interest in taking food or water, and bawl and shout throughout the day.

2. Tree Fruiting Patterns:

• Neem Tree (Azadirachta indica): If the neem tree bears plenty of fruit.

• Baval Tree (Acacia nilotica): If the baval tree produces plenty of pods.

• These observations suggest that the total rainfall for the monsoon will be high.

Weed control methods may be classified into two groups as follows:

    1.    Preventive method
    2.    Curative or remedial measures. Curative measures are sub-divided into eradication and control.

(a) Preventive Methods

Prevention is the measures taken to prevent the introduction or spread  of the weeds to new areas and to check the infestation prior to the germination of weed seeds. To achieve this, a wise step to be followed the principle- “Prevention is better than cure”.

Skeleton Leaves

Skeleton leaves are semi-transparent leaves, also called fossil leaves. They are prepared by soaking the fresh leaves in bleached water and then by hand rubbing the soft green flesh from the network of veins. The leaves can be then dyed to variant colors to give them a beautiful and pleasing appearance. Although delicate by nature, they are actually sturdy and can easily be glued to a variety of surfaces. They come in several colors and sizes to meet a complete line of crafting needs. The delicate beauty of these leaves is sometimes meant to capture life, hope and memories. These delicate, gorgeous skeleton leaves are a perfect accent for all craft projects. They make a beautiful and elegant statement when they adorn your wedding invitations. They work surprisingly well on gift tags, greeting cards, scrapbooks, collages, papermaking, stenciling, and stamping. They are perfect for decorating bridal bouquet, wedding reception table, candles, and wedding favors.

Introduction

Impact assessment is the process of identifying the future consequences of a current or proposed action. It is used to ensure that projects, programmes and policies are economically viable, socially equitable and environmentally sustainable. Programme Monitoring and Evaluation (PME) efforts are critical issues in management of agricultural research and development (R & D). In times of fiscal constraint, more emphasis is placed on accountability and programme effectiveness. As a management tool, PME is an integrated approach that incorporates the viewpoints of clientele, policy-makers, researchers and donors to address the intended goals. Public and private support to research will depend largely on efficiency issues and ability to reckon with multiple objectives, ranging from food security to sustainability, poverty alleviation, gender issues, export, etc. The PME of agricultural R & D projects is critical when the intended R&D has multiple outcomes. Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of development activities provides government officials, development managers, and civil society with better means for learning from past experience, improving service delivery, planning and allocating resources, and demonstrating results as part of accountability to key stakeholders (World Bank, 2004).

To comprehensively analyse the perceived effects of contract farming on employment generation and poverty alleviation, it is imperative to adopt a systematic and scientific approach. This chapter elaborates on the research design, methodology and tools employed in conducting the present study. It encompasses the rationale behind the study locale selection, sampling techniques, instrument construction, data collection, variable operationalization and analytical methods. These methodological decisions are aimed at unearthing empirical evidence and formulating theoretical insights into the socio-economic implications of contract farming.
The study primarily seeks to understand the perceived outcomes of contract farming on rural livelihoods, particularly its influence on employment and poverty. Furthermore, it explores associated constraints and socio-economic characteristics of contract farmers, thereby constructing a robust conceptual framework grounded in empirical observations. The chapter is structured under the following sub-sections:
a) Locale of research
b) Sampling design
c) Pilot study
d) Hypothesis
e) Variables and their measurement
f) Method of data collection
g) Statistical and analytical tools

Methylene-cyclo-propyl-glycine (MCPG), is a cyclopropyl derivative, grouped into the amino acids that have been isolated from the higher plants (Fowden, 1960). MCPG was identified to be closely related to two other cyclopropyl derivatives (Fig. 1), 1-aminocyclopropane – 1 – carboxylic acid from Vacciniumvitis-idaea and perry pears (Vahatalo and Viertanen, 1957; Burroughs, 1957) and â- methylenecyclopropyl alanine (MCPA or Hypoglycin A) from Blighia sapida (Hassall and Rayle, 1955; Anderson et al., 1958; Ellington, Hassall and Plimmer, 1958).

ABSTRACT

Methylotrophy is a phenomenon by which microorganisms derive energy, and in many cases, cell carbon from reduced molecules that have no C–C bond (also called C1compounds). This gains significance because of its unique mode of nutrition, the ability to utilize more than one metabolic pathway and its vast distribution among various groups of bacteria and yeasts. It is one of the earliest modes of energy metabolism present in microorganisms, through which microorganisms are able to utilize a wide range of compounds, which are considered unsuitable for most forms of life. In the present chapter we focus on various aspects of methylotrophy, and the application of methylotrophic bacteria in a spectrum of biological activities and commercial possibilities.

Metritis is a condition seen in cattle in which there is the inflammation of the entire thickness of uterine wall (endometrium, myometrium and serosa). When it occurs just after parturition, it is called puerperal metritis. It usually occurs after abnormal birth like in case of dystocia, abortion, RFM etc. The animal shows systemic signs like increase in temperature initially, increase in respiration rate, anorexia, toxemia etc. There is expulsion of large volume of foul smelling reddish to brown discharge from vagina frequently associated with straining. The expelled discharge from vagina is often with pieces of degenerating placenta.

1.    The word “economics” has been derived from the Greek word_______ which means household management?

(a) OIKONOMICAS

(b) OIKOS

(c) NOMOS

(d) OICONOMICAS

2.    The term “microeconomics” has been derived from a Greek word ____________.

(a) MICROS

(b) MIKROS

(c) MACROS

(d) MACROS

10.1 Introduction

As one ofthe oldest and most widely used renewable energy sources, hydropower generates electricity by using the natural flow of flowing water. Streams and rivers have been used for producing mechanical energy for thousands of years. Hydroelectric power plants are located near or on water sources since they derive their power from flowing water. The amount of energy that can be released in moving water depends on the volume of the water flowing and the elevation change from one point to another, often called head. Generally, hydropower plants can produce more electricity when there is more water flow and a higher head. 

As the name indicates, micro-organisms are very minute, cellular, living organisms which cannot be seen with the naked eyes (however, large colonies of fungi can be seen). Micro-organisms affecting stored grain can be divided into the following groups in order of their significance:

1. Fungi
2. Actinomycetes
3. Yeast
4. Bacteria
5. Protozoa (not found in sound food grains)

Fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes are grouped under the Thallophyta of the plant kingdom. The most important factors for their normal development are: (i) Nature of Food, (ii) Moisture, (iii) Oxygen and (iv) Temperature.