eChapters

1. P. monodon (green tiger prawn) is the most candidate species for cul ture.

2. Testis have 6 lobe all lobes are connected on the inner margin leading to vasdeferens.

3. Spermatozoa are stored in the terminal of ampulae.

4. Inhibitory hormone are secreted in the early maturity stage.

5. Matured ovary has dark color due to the accumulation of the carotenoid pigment.

6. The first abdomen segment assumed that have diamond shape called as saddle.

7. Male have petasma on the first pair of pleopod.

8. Female have thelycum on the 4 & 5th pair of walking leg.

9. Male has Gonophore on the fifth pair of the walking leg.

10. Female has Gonophore on the third pair of walking leg.

1. 21723 living species of fishes existing in the world at present.

2. Jhingran and Gopalakrishnan 1974 listed 314 species of teleost utilized for aquaculture throughout the world.

3. Gynogenetic offsprings are always females.

4. Bisexual fishes – Gonochorism fishes.

5. Protoandrous hermaphrodites – Lates calcarifer, Sparus auratus, Sargus sargus and Palleus mormyrus.

6. Protogynous hermaphrodites – groupers.

7. Dwarf males were observed in Angler fish and Salmonids.

8. Sand spawners / Psammophils – Gobio gobio.

9. Rock and gravel spawners – Rohu, salmonids.

10. Terrestrial spawners / aerophils – Bryconpetrosus.

1. Ornamental fishes are also called as living jewels.

2. The ancient Romans were the first to keep ornamental fishes as pets at homes.

3. Aquarium fish can fetch 100 times more price than the food fish.

4. Marine ornamentals fetches 10 times more costly than freshwater ornamental fishes.

5. Ornamental fish farming is a boon to India for rapid development of national economy.

6. Values of international trade of ornamental fishes are about US $ 5 Billion.

7. Major traders of ornamental fishes are USA, Europe, Japan, Australia, Singapore, Indonesia, Philippines and Sri Lanka. (8 countries, code word: SIPS-JEUA)

1. A production of 600 tones/ha/year of tilapia in cages has been recorded in Laguna Bay in Philippines.

2. Indian Major Carps (IMC) contributes 84% of India’s aquaculture production.

3. The seed production of the carps has been standardized, with commercial hatcheries producing over 19000 million fry per year.

4. A pit like structure located near the outlet of the pond is called as harvesting pit (measures about 50 - 100m2).

5. Size of the nursery pond = 12 x 6 x 1m.

6. Size of the Rearing pond = 25 x 12 x 1m.

7. Size of the production pond is 0.1 to 2 ha.

8. Size of the quarantine pond is less than 0.5 ha.

9. During construction to retard erosion and seepage, soil must contain a minimum of 25% of clay.

10. The depth of the pond must be 0.5 to 1m.

1. Alkalinity is expressed as equivalents of calcium carbonate.

2. Adult fish retained for spawning is called as brood stock.

3. The population, number or weight of a species that is present in that environment is called as carrying capacity.

4. The discharge from a rearing facility, treatment plant or industry is called as effluent.

5. The ability of water to neutralize soap is due to presence of cations (calcium and magnesium).

6. Very soft water – 0 to 20 ppm as CaCO3 .

7. Soft water – 21 to 50 ppm as CaCO3 .

8. Hard water – 51 to 500 ppm as CaCO3 .

9. Very hard water – above 500 ppm as CaCO3 .

10. Aquaculture is believed to be first practices as early as 2000 B.C. in China.

Proper nutrition is essential for the health and well-being of dogs at every stage of life. The nutritional needs of a dog change as it grows, so it’s important to tailor their diet according to their age, size, and health status. Below is a comprehensive guide on the nutritional needs of dogs, broken down into different age groups: puppies, adult dogs, and senior dogs.

1. Puppies (0-12 Months)

Puppies are in a rapid growth phase and require a high level of nutrients, including proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals, to support the development of muscles, bones, organs, and the immune system.

Nutritional Needs

Protein: Puppies require high-quality animal-based protein to build muscle and tissue. Around 22-30% of their diet should be protein-rich. Chicken, tur key, fish, and eggs are excellent sources.

Vaccination is one of the most effective ways to protect dogs from potentially life-threatening diseases. It plays a crucial role in controlling infectious diseases and helps maintain both individual and herd immunity. Timely and appropriate vaccination of dogs not only safeguards their health but also prevents the spread of diseases to other animals and even humans in some cases. This article provides a detailed vaccination schedule for different diseases of dogs, including core and non-core vaccines, and highlights the importance of adhering to a proper vaccination regimen.

Vaccination is categorized into two main types: core vaccines and non-core vaccines. Core vaccines are considered essential for all dogs, regardless of their lifestyle or environment, while non-core vaccines are given based on individual risk factors like geography, lifestyle, and exposure to certain environments.

Natural disasters like cyclone, earthquakes, flood etc. can happen suddenly and put everyone, including our pets, in danger. Taking care of your dog during such situation means being prepared, staying calm and knowing what to do. This article provides simple steps to help you care for your dog during a disaster.

Before a Disaster make an emergency plan

i. Find Safe Spots: Identify safe places in your home and community where you can go with your dog.

ii. Know evacuation routes: Plan different ways to leave your home in case one way is blocked and find pet-friendly shelters in your area.

iii. Emergency Contacts: Keep a list of important contacts, such as your vet, local animal control, and pet-friendly hotels.

Pets provide companionship, emotional support, and numerous health benefits to their owners. However, they can also be carriers of zoonotic diseases— diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans. Understanding these risks and implementing measures to reduce them is crucial for maintaining the health and safety of both pets and humans. This article explores common pet-associated zoonotic infections and offers strategies to minimize the risk of transmission.

Common Pet-Associated Zoonotic Infections

1. Rabies

• Cause: Rabies is caused by the rabies virus and is transmitted through the bite of an infected animal.

• Symptoms in Humans: Initial symptoms include fever and headache, progressing to neurological symptoms such as confusion, hallucinations, and paralysis. Rabies is almost always fatal once symptoms appear.

• Prevention: Vaccination of pets, avoiding contact with wild animals, and immediate medical attention after potential exposure.

Proper grooming and hygiene are essential for maintaining the health and well-being of pet dogs. Regular grooming not only keeps your dog looking and smelling good but also helps prevent various health issues such as skin infections, parasites, and dental problems. This article explores the key aspects of grooming and hygiene for pet dogs, including brushing, bathing, nail care, ear and eye care, dental hygiene, and general tips for maintaining a clean and healthy canine companion.

Brushing Benefits

• Reduces Shedding: Regular brushing helps remove loose hair, reducing shedding and keeping your home cleaner.

• Prevents Matting: For dogs with longer coats, brushing prevents mats and tangles, which can cause discomfort and lead to skin issues.

• Stimulates Skin: Brushing stimulates the skin and distributes natural oils, promoting a healthy coat.

Managing the care of a pregnant dog and supporting her through the whelping process requires careful attention, preparation, and understanding. Ensuring the health and safety of both the mother and her puppies is paramount. This article provides a comprehensive guide on how to care for a dog during pregnancy and whelping, including nutritional needs, veterinary care, creating a whelping area, and post-birth care.

Understanding Canine Pregnancy

Gestation Period

• The gestation period for dogs is approximately 63 days, though it can range from 58 to 68 days.

Signs of Pregnancy

• Early signs include increased appetite, slight weight gain, and changes in behavior such as increased affection.

• Around the fourth week, the abdomen may start to swell, and by the sixth week, noticeable weight gain and enlarged nipples are common.

As dogs age, their needs change significantly, requiring adjustments in their care routine to ensure they remain healthy, comfortable, and happy in their golden years. Caring for a senior dog involves paying attention to their evolving physical and emotional needs, managing health issues proactively, and providing a supportive and nurturing environment. This article outlines the key aspects of caring for senior dogs, focusing on health and comfort.

Recognizing When Your Dog is a Senior

Dogs are generally considered seniors at around seven years old, although this can vary depending on breed and size. Larger breeds tend to age faster than smaller breeds. Signs of aging include graying fur, decreased energy levels, stiffness, and changes in behavior or appetite.

Health Care for Senior Dogs

Regular Veterinary Check-ups

Frequency: Increase the frequency of veterinary visits to at least twice a year. Regular check-ups can help detect and manage health issues early. Comprehensive Exams: Ensure the vet conducts comprehensive exams, including blood tests, dental check-ups, and screenings for common age related conditions such as arthritis, diabetes, kidney disease, and cancer.

Traveling with your dog can be a delightful experience, whether you're embarking on a road trip, flying to a distant destination, or simply visiting friends and family. However, it requires careful planning and preparation to ensure your dog's safety, comfort, and well-being. This guide covers the essential aspects of traveling with your dog, providing tips and best practices for a smooth journey.

Preparing for the Journey

Health Check and Documentation

1. Veterinary Check-up: Before any trip, schedule a visit to the vet to ensure your dog is healthy and up-to-date on vaccinations. Discuss any travel-specific health concerns with your vet.

2. Documentation: Carry a copy of your dog’s medical records, including vaccination certificates, in case they are needed during your trip. Some destinations require proof of rabies vaccination and other health certifications.

Maintaining your dog’s oral hygiene is crucial for their overall health and happiness. Dental issues can lead to pain, infection and even systemic health problems affecting vital organs. This comprehensive guide delves deeper into the importance of oral care, step-by-step techniques for cleaning your dog’s teeth, signs of dental issues and tips for maintaining optimal oral health.

Importance of Oral Care

1. Preventing Periodontal Disease

Stages of Periodontal Disease: This common dental issue progresses through stages, starting with gingivitis (inflammation of the gums) and advancing to periodontitis, where the supporting structures of the teeth are damaged. Untreated periodontal disease can lead to tooth loss and infections that can spread to different tissues including gastrointestinal tract, liver, heart and kidneys.

2. Avoiding Bad Breath (Halitosis)

Causes: Bad breath is primarily caused by microbial buildup in the mouth due to poor oral hygiene. Persistent bad breath can be a sign of more serious dental problems.

In today's sedentary lifestyle, ensuring adequate exercise for pet dogs is crucial for their physical health, mental well-being and preventing obesity. To help pet owners understand the importance of exercise in maintaining the overall health and happiness their canine companions and how much exercise is adequate to different pet breeds are incorporated in this text.

Physical Health Benefits

Regular physical activity is essential for controlling weight and preventing obesity, which are common concerns among dogs. Obesity in dogs is associated with various health issues such as diabetes, heart disease, and arthritis. Engaging in activities like walking, running, and playing not only burns calories but also improves cardiovascular health, strengthens muscles, and enhances flexibility.

As cherished members of our families, pet dogs bring joy, companionship, and unconditional love into our lives. Understanding their normal behavior is essential for building a strong bond and providing the care and support they need to thrive. Here’s a comprehensive guide to the typical behavior of pet dogs:

1. Social Behavior

• Dogs are social animals and thrive on companionship and interaction with humans and other animals. They often seek out attention, affection, and physical contact from their owners.

• Common social behaviors include wagging their tails, licking, leaning against their owners, and seeking proximity during rest or sleep.

The eyes and ears are not only vital sensory organs for your pet dog but also key indicators of their overall health and well-being. Proper care and management of these delicate areas are essential for preventing infections, maintaining comfort, and preserving your furry friend’s quality of life. Here’s a comprehensive guide to eye and ear care for pet dogs:

Eye Care

1. Regular Inspection

• Start by regularly inspecting your dog’s eyes for any signs of redness, swelling, discharge, or cloudiness. Clear, bright eyes indicate good health, while any changes may signal an underlying issue.

• Look out for excessive tearing, squinting, or rubbing of the eyes, as these may indicate irritation or injury.

A dog’s skin is not only their largest organ but also a vital indicator of their overall health and well-being. Proper skin care and management are essential for keeping your furry friend comfortable, happy, and healthy. Here’s a comprehensive guide to maintaining your pet dog’s skin:

1. Regular Grooming

• Regular grooming is key to keeping your dog’s skin clean and free from debris, dirt, and excess oils. Brushing your dog’s coat helps distribute natural oils and prevents matting, which can lead to skin irritation.

• Use a grooming brush appropriate for your dog’s coat type and length. Long-haired breeds may require daily brushing, while short-haired breeds may need less frequent grooming.

2. Bathing Routine

• Bathing helps remove dirt, allergens, and bacteria from your dog’s skin and coat. However, over-bathing can strip away natural oils and lead to dryness and irritation.

• Use a mild, hypoallergenic dog shampoo specifically formulated for pets. Avoid using human shampoos, as they can be too harsh for your dog’s skin.

• Frequency of bathing depends on your dog’s breed, lifestyle, and skin condition. Generally, bathing once every 4-6 weeks is sufficient for most dogs.

Ensuring the health and well-being of your pet dog is a top priority for every responsible pet owner. Understanding common diseases that affect dogs and taking preventive measures can significantly improve their quality of life and longevity. Here’s an overview of some prevalent canine diseases and how to prevent them:

1. Parvovirus (Parvo)

• Parvovirus is a highly contagious viral disease that affects dogs, especially puppies.

• Symptoms include severe vomiting, diarrhea (often bloody), lethargy, and dehydration.

• Prevention: Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent parvovirus. Puppies should receive a series of vaccinations starting at 6-8 weeks of age, with boosters every few weeks until they are 16-20 weeks old.

As the temperature drops and snowflakes begin to fall, it’s essential to ensure that your beloved canine companion stays warm, healthy, and happy during the winter months. While winter brings its own set of challenges for pet owners, with some extra care and attention, you can make sure your pet thrives even in the coldest of seasons. Here are some essential tips for caring for and managing your pet dog during winter:

1. Provide Adequate Shelter: If your dog spends time outdoors, make sure they have a warm and dry shelter to retreat to when the weather gets harsh. Whether it’s a sturdy doghouse or a cozy insulated shelter, ensure it provides protection from wind, rain, snow, and low temperatures. Consider adding blankets or straw bedding for extra warmth.

2. Limit Outdoor Exposure: While dogs may enjoy playing in the snow, it’s crucial to limit their time outdoors during extreme cold weather. Frostbite and hypothermia are real dangers for dogs, especially those with short fur or small breeds. Keep outdoor activities short and supervise your dog closely to prevent any weather-related emergencies.

3. Protect Their Paws: Snow, ice, and road salt can be harsh on your dog’s paws, causing irritation, dryness, and even chemical burns. Invest in a pair of dog booties to protect their paws during walks or consider using paw balms to moisturize and create a protective barrier. After walks, wipe your dog’s paws with a warm, damp cloth to remove any salt or ice-melting chemicals.

As the chill of winter fades away, and nature begins to bloom, it’s time to embrace the joys of spring with your furry friend by your side. While spring brings about a sense of renewal and excitement, it also brings some unique challenges for pet owners. Here are some essential tips to ensure your pet dog stays happy, healthy, and safe during the spring season:

1. Regular Grooming Sessions: Springtime means shedding season for many dogs, as they lose their winter coats to make way for lighter ones. Regular grooming sessions, including brushing and bathing, can help reduce shedding and prevent matting. Additionally, grooming helps in checking for any ticks, fleas, or skin irritations that may arise as the weather warms up.

2. Watch Out for Allergies: Just like humans, dogs can suffer from seasonal allergies too. Keep an eye out for signs such as excessive scratching, licking, or sneezing. Consult your veterinarian if you suspect your dog is experiencing allergies, as they can recommend appropriate treatment options or medication.

3. Protect Against Fleas and Ticks: Springtime brings a surge in flea and tick activity. Ensure your dog is up to date on flea and tick prevention medications recommended by your veterinarian. Regularly inspect your pet for any signs of these pests, especially after outdoor activities in grassy or wooded areas.

4. Stay Hydrated: Warmer weather means increased activity levels for both you and your dog. Make sure your pet has access to clean and fresh water at all times, especially during outdoor excursions. Dehydration can be a serious concern, so carry water and a portable bowl when going for walks or hikes.

As the temperature rises during the summer months, it's crucial for pet owners to be vigilant about the well-being of their furry companions, especially dogs. As dogs are very much playful and active in nature, constant monitoring or observation is required to assess onset of heat stress as its onset is very quick and require immediate attention. Hence, knowing the sign and symptoms of heat stress will save the pets from ensuing negative impact on the health. Proper care and management are essential to ensure your pet stays healthy and happy during this adverse climatic condition.

Dogs release their body temperature through panting and by sweating through the nose and paw pads. If they can’t dissipate heat sufficiently their internal body temperature raises leading to hyperthermia (excess body temperature than normal, 101.0 to 102.50F).

Signs and symptoms of heat stress

The signs and symptoms vary as per the degree of stress incurred. At the initial stage of stress they show – increased thirst and panting.

Common Exotic and Indian Dog Breeds

India is home to a rich diversity of dog breeds both indigenous and exotic, each with unique traits suited to different environments and lifestyles. Among the exotic dog breeds that have gained popularity in India are the Labrador retriever, Golden Retriever, Beagle and German shepherd. These breeds often imported and are known for their friendly nature, intelligence and trainability. Labradors and Golden Retrievers are particularly famous for their loyalty and gentleness, making them excellent family pets. The Beagle, with its keen sense of smell and compact size, is a favourite among urban dwellers, while the German shepherd is valued for its protective instincts and versatility in roles like police work, guard duties and service tasks.

In contrast, Indian dog breeds, many of which are lesser-known globally, are uniquely adapted to the country's diverse climate and conditions. The Indian Pariah Dog is one of the oldest and most resilient breeds, found naturally across the country. Known for its strong immune system, minimal grooming needs and intelligence, the Indian Pariah is an exceptional companion that thrives with minimal human intervention. Another indigenous breed is the Rajapalayam, a sighthound from Tamil Nadu, historically used for hunting boar and protecting livestock. With its striking white coat and regal demeanour, the Rajapalayam is revered for its loyalty and bravery. The Mudhol Hound/ Caravan Hound, from the Deccan Plateau region (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana and Tamil Nadu of India), is another notable Indian breed, known for its speed, agility and endurance, often used in hunting and guarding. Chippiparai, another hound from Tamil Nadu, has a sleek body designed for speed and was historically favoured by royalty for hunting small game. The Kanni, also native to Tamil Nadu, is a close relative of the Chippiparai and is recognized for its grace and loyalty, often kept as a companion dog.

Cannibalism

Cannibalism is a bad habit of birds in which the birds attack their fellow birds and eat their flesh. It is done through sharp end of beak, which causes deep wounds specially on vent. Sometimes the wounds are so deep that leads to death of affected bird. Two types of cannibalism vices are common i.e. vent pecking and feather pecking.

Cause / Predisposing Factors

• Over crowding

• Genetic predisposition

• Hemorrhage in external genitalia

• Protein deficiency (arginine and methionine deficiency)

• Loss of feathers • Wounds

• Prolapse of cloaca

Roundworms (Nematodes)

1. Ascaridia galli

A. galli is the common roundworm of poultry seen in intestines at the time of necropsy. This parasite may cause retardation of growth, loss of egg production, catarrhal enteritis and sometimes mortality due to obstruction of gut (Fig.9.1).

Etiology

• A. galli parasites are grey, thread like 5-10 cm in length.

• Eggs are elliptical with thick and shiny wall.

Pathogenesis

Transmission occurs through faecal - oral route. The eggs may survive for several months in litter and they take at least 10-15 days to develop the infective stage. The eggs of parasites hatch in proventriculus or intestine to develop fully grown parasite within 40-50 days.

Aspergillosis

Aspergillosis is a fungal disease of poultry caused by different species of Aspergillus sp and characterized by granulomatous nodules in lungs, thickening of air sacs and presence of fungal growth in lungs and air sacs in early age of chicks. It is also known as Brooders pneumonia (Fig.8.1).

Etiology

• Aspergillus fumigatus

• A. flavus

• A. nidulans

• A. glaucus

• A. niger

• A. candidus

Spirochetosis

Spirochetosis is caused by a spiral shaped organism Borrelia anserina and characterized by greenish diarrhoea, enlarged and mottled spleen, small necrotic patches on liver and linear haemorrhage in proventriculus. This disease is transmitted by a tick Argas persicus and thus also known as “tick fever” or “tick paralysis”.

Etiology

• Spirochete Borrelia anserina

• Spiral shape 8-24m long and 0.2 to 0.3 m wide microorganism having 8-11 spirals.

• Stained with aniline dyes

Chronic Respiratory Disease (CRD)

Chronic respiratory disease is caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum and E.coli in birds under poor management and characterized by cloudy air sacs with thickening of their wall, accumulation of cheesy material in air sacs and lungs (Fig.6.1).

Etiology

• Mycoplasma gallisepticum

• E.coli

• Bad management like poor ventilation and inclement weather conditions

• Disease occurs more during winter and rainy season.

Ornithosis

Ornithosis is caused by Chlamydia and characterized by enlargement of liver and spleen, serofibrinous pericarditis, air sacculitis and enteritis. This is also known as chlamydiosis, psittacosis and is more common in parrots, pigeons and other psittacine birds.

Etiology

• Chlamydia psittaci group B

• Size 0.3 to 1.5 m

• Disease spreads from wild birds

Salmonellosis

Salmonellosis is caused by G-bacteria Salmonella and characterized by early chick mortality with necrosis and hemorrhage in liver, heart and spleen and enlarged bronze coloured liver with focal or diffuse necrosis, marbled spleen and/or oophoritis and salpingitis in adults (Fig.4.1).

Etiology

• Salmonella enteritidis var. Galinarum (S. Galinarum).

• G-, rod, non lactose fermenter.

• White small colonies on MLA and pink on BGA.

Ranikhet Disease

Ranikhet disease is a contagious viral disease of poultry characterized by high mortality petechial hemorrhage in proventriculus, ulcers and hemorrhage at caecal tonsils and pneumoencephalitis. It is also known as Newcastle disease (Fig.3.1).

Etiology

• Paramyxo virus

• RNA virus-3 types

• Lentogenic- mild virulent

• Mesogenic- moderate virulent

• Velogenic- highly virulent

Pathology of nutritional deficiency diseases are described in chapter etiology of this book. However, specific deficiency of nutrition that leads to development of clinical signs and lesions in poultry are summarized as under (Fig.2.1 & Fig.2.2):

Vitamin Deficiency

1. Hypovitaminosis A

• Vitamin A is considered infection resisting vitamin because it facilitates the proper development of bursa, immunity and epithelium on mucosal and skin surfaces.

• Deficiency of vitamin A leads to swollen glands in oesophagus i.e. nutritional roup.

• Avian Inflammation

Inflammation is a process which begins following a sublethal injury to tissue and ends with complete healing or death. It is characterized by five cardinal signs. Cardinal signs of inflammation are:

• Redness

• Heat

• Swelling

• Pain

• Loss of function

• Inflammation is beneficial in most of cases expect

• In prolonged or unending process

• In inflammation of immunological origin i.e. hypersensitivity and autoimmunity.

• It provides basic foundation of pathogenesis and pathology.

• It is now said that immunity is the resistance of body, while inflammation is the process by which the immune mechanism are implemented.

• The basis of inflammation remains same be it mammal or birds. For details, one can refer the chapter inflammation and heading in book “Illustrated Veterinary Pathology”. However, there are some differences in reaction in birds which are briefly listed below:

The global herbal industry faces significant challenges due to varying regulatory frameworks, quality control standards, and traditional practices. This talk aims to bridge the gap by promoting “Herbal Harmony”- a unified approach to standardizing herbal products worldwide. Experts from diverse f ields will converge to discuss: Harmonization of regulatory frameworks, standardization of quality control and assurance, validation of traditional knowledge, innovative technologies for herbal analysis and global market trends and opportunities by fostering collaboration and knowledge sharing, “Herbal Harmony” seeks to: enhance consumer safety and confidence, promote sustainable herbal trade practices, support evidence-based herbal medicine and to facilitate international collaboration and trade.

Spermatozoa, the male reproductive cells, play a crucial role in fertilization and subsequent embryonic development. However, toxic substances such as heavy metals(lead) can disrupt spermatozoa function through various mechanisms, including oxidative stress, DNA damage, and disruption of cellular homeostasis. The toxic effects can impair sperm motility, viability, and acrosomal integrity, ultimately leading to reduced fertility. Livestock are not immune to these toxic insults, which can compromise their reproductive efficiency and agricultural productivity. Lead (Pb) is a toxic pollutant and is extensively distributed in the environmental and biological systems. This topic envisages the detrimental effects of lead on spermatozoa functions, shedding light on the underlying mechanisms, signal transduction pathways, and sperm kinematic alterations.

Vultures are obligate and highly efficient scavengers. They are keystone species providing important ecosystem services, but their adaptations to save energy, gorge themselves up to one third their body weight at a time, survive easily without food for up to a fortnight, conserve energy by using soaring and gliding flight, are just some of the unique and important characteristics of these magnificent birds. A highly efficient digestive system helps in extracting nutrients from otherwise non-nutrient sources like hide, tendons, and even bones. Vultures have been instrumental in keeping India clean and safe from disease outbreaks. A bird which is unaffected by multiple disease-causing micro-organisms helps to rid the environment from disease pandemics and epidemics. However, since the mid 1990ss these robust birds with a life span of 40-60 years, have declined drastically, from tens of millions to a few thousand currently, a decline of around 99%. For the formerly most abundant of these vultures, the white-rumped vulture, declines already happened by 99.9% in just 15 years! These declines led to multiple problems including increases in feral dog populations, economic and social losses and most importantly, 5,00,000 human deathsin five years,as a direct cause of the decline of vultures. The main cause of the vulture declines has been scientifically proven to be due to the use of veterinary diclofenac in cattle, their major source offood. Although veterinary diclofenac was banned since 2006, the drug has remained in the cattle carcasses at lower levels and new vulture toxic drugs have been discovered.

Role of Leptin in Uterine Function

Leptin is a 16 kDa protein consisting of 167 amino acids, encoded by the LEP gene located on chromosome 7q31.3. Structurally, leptin comprises four anti parallel alpha helices (A, B, C, and D), two long loops (AB and CD), and a short loop (BC). It has three binding sites: site I is in the C-terminal region of helix D, site II spans the surface of helices A and C, and site III is located near the N-terminal region of helix D. Its structural similarity to proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor suggests its potential immune-modulatory roles.

Leptin’s effects on uterine contractions have been studied at length. In human uterine smooth muscle, leptin inhibits both spontaneous and oxytocin-induced contractions. Moynihan et al. (2008) reported that leptin caused a 46% reduction in spontaneous and a 42% reduction in oxytocin-induced contractions. A lesser degree of relaxation (36%) was noted in a larger study involving non-laboring human uterine tissue, while rat uterine tissue exhibited a 24% relaxation (Mumtaz et al., 2015). The concentrations used in these studies ranged from 1 nM to 1 µM, which includes the physiological range in pregnant women with normal body mass index (BMI). Leptin levels rise with increasing BMI during pregnancy (Hendler et al., 2005).

Use of veterinary drugs in prevention, control and treatment is becoming inevitable with the intensification of livestock production system. Food animals given veterinary drugs contain residues of parent compounds and/ or their metabolites may remain in edible products for a period of time after treatment. In such scenario if withdrawal period of the drug is not observed, then there is every chance for that residue to become a part of the human diet. Subsequently, people consuming such veterinary drug residue-containing foods may suffer from different adverse health effects like increasing incidence of AMR, in addition to hypersensitivity and allergic reactions in some sensitive individuals. On the other hand, some veterinary drugs like nitrofurans and its metabolites (SEM, AHD, AOZ & AMOZ) represents major concern in food due to their carcinogenic nature and their use in food animals have been banned in most countries. Responsible and prudent use of veterinary drugs in food animals is must to promote animal health and to ensure food safety. On that front, veterinarians who is holding the prescription decision, indeed play a crucial role in the mission for attainment of judicious use of veterinary drugs in food producing animals and complying the regulatory requirement to produce safe animal sourced foods.

Introduction

Research in different fields of biological science requires test systems to observe the effects of chemicals or drugs. Testing new chemical entity (NCE) in drug discovery and development requires either in vitro or in vivo systems, including cell culture, tissue, organs and whole animal. Various advantages and disadvantages of each test system force scientists to find an alternative test system. The use of laboratory animals like rodents and non-rodents for evaluation of the effects of drugs or toxicity studies having ethical concerns. The cell-based and tissue-based test systems have various disadvantages including problem related prediction of the desirable and undesirable effects in animals. All such factors favor the use of laboratory animals like rats, mice, guinea pigs, rabbits, dogs, and primates in the pre-clinical phase of drug discovery. However, cost, manpower, and time-consuming efforts can be considered unfavorable for the use of such animals for testing every newly synthesized compound. Because of such difficulties in the field of new research with animal models, scientists made efforts to identify a newer animal model that can replace currently available animal species in research up to a certain extent. The animal model that is used in such drug discovery programs and toxicological testing must have homology to human beings or target species. The limitations or disadvantages of currently available animal models may be solved up to a certain level by using aquatic animal species like zebrafish.

Toxicological screening is essential for the development of new drugs (ND) and exploring the therapeutic potential of existing compounds.While animal testing is still regarded as the “gold standard” in traditional toxicity assessments, there is a growing need to transition towards alternative methods for drug safety testing. This shift is driven by the emergence of cutting-edge technologies and the adoption of the 3Rs principle (replace, reduce, refine) which emphasizes animal welfare.Routine in vitro safety screeningalong with GLP (Good Laboratory Practice) and non-GLP toxicity testing follow regulatory frameworks established by agencies such as the FDA (Food and Drug Administration), ICH (International Council for Harmonization)and EMA (European Medicines Agency) (Tang et al., 2023).In recent years, there has been a shift towards enhanced safety screening during the lead optimization stages of drug discovery. Regulatory toxicology testing plays a pivotal role in determining the potential risks associated with new drug compounds and ensuring their safety before they can proceed to human clinical trials and, ultimately, be marketed to the public.

Radiation combined injury (RCI) is complex condition that arises from simultaneous exposure to ionizing radiation and other types of physical trauma, such as blunt force injuries, thermal burns, or chemical exposure. This combination significantly complicates diagnosis and treatment, leading to increased morbidity and mortality. The past experiences of Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Chernobyl have revealed that a large fraction of victims of such nuclear accidents or attacks suffer from combined radiation injuries. The possibility of a nuclear attack seems very far-fetched, but the destruction that would occur in such events will be massive, with a huge loss in terms of lives. Therefore, preparedness for the same should be done beforehand. Ionizing radiation damages cellular structures, primarily through direct ionization of DNA, leading to a range of acute and chronic health effects.

The severity of radiation damage is influenced by the dose, type of radiation, and duration of exposure. Simultaneously, traumatic injuries can result from various mechanisms such as combat, accidents, explosions that may involve blunt trauma, lacerations, or burns. These injuries can lead to significant blood loss, organ failure, and infections, which may be aggravated by the immune suppression caused by radiation exposure. The interaction between radiation effects and traumatic injuries can create a unique clinical challenge, as each type of injury can exacerbate the other’s impact on the body. The pathophysiology and prognosis of RCI are more intricate and challenging to manage compared to simple burns, wound or radiation injuries. Although RCI is uncommon, it poses significant risks during unfortunate events like nuclear or radiological terrorist attacks and nuclear accidents. Historical nuclear incidents have shown that 65-70% of victims experienced varying degrees of thermal burns and other traumatic injuries alongside radiation exposure. These victims often sustain damage to nearly every organ system, particularly the gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, neurological, and hematopoietic systems, all crucial for survival.

Introduction

Pulmonary vascular tone regulation involves the balance between vasoconstriction and vasodilation, primarily controlled by pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) and endothelial cells (Lyle et al., 2017). This regulation is influenced by various factors, including ion channels, which modulates the flow of ions like K+, Ca2+, Na+ and Cl- across cell membranes, affecting vascular contraction and relaxation. Diseases like pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH) are attributed to dysregulation of vascular tone, which is essential for preserving ideal blood flow and pressure in the lungs (Christou and Khalil, 2022). Excessive vasoconstriction and impaired vasodilation increase pulmonary arterial pressure. This heightened resistance strains the right ventricle, leading to heart failure over time. Dysregulated ion channel movement in PASMCs is often a key factor in the development and progression of the disease. Ion channel receptors are promising candidates for medical therapy for the amelioration of pulmonary vascular disorders. Agents that regulate the functioning of ion channels may be employed to treat aberrant pulmonary blood vessel tone (Jouen-Tachoire et al., 2021).

The art of Indian traditional knowledge regarding herbal medicine has a long history and can be considered as a potential source of new medicine. India has great potential in the market for herbal medicine, which is evident by the fact that medicinal plants required to prepare 50% of the drugs mentioned in the British Pharmacopoeia are reported to be present in the Western Himalayan region alone and India has approximately 8% of the world’s biodiversity, including plant genetic diversity with medicinal properties (Singh, 2006). Traditional medicine is widely used in rural areas, where 70% of the country’s population resides. Almost 75% of the medicinal plants grow naturally in different states of India. These plants are known to cure many ailments in animals.

Ethno Veterinary Practices

Ethno Veterinary Practices, also known as Traditional Veterinary Medicinal Practices are regarded as information gained over a period of time passed on from generation to generation. It is a community based functional knowledge system which has been developed, preserved and refined by generations of people through continuous interaction, observation and experimentation with their surrounding environment. Rural farmers mostly rely on ancestral ethno veterinary practices to deal with the diseases of their livestock and poultry. Veterinarians also show considerable interest in the medicinal plants, employed in traditional systems. This emerging trend in favour of herbal medicine is also due to the issues related to the antimicrobial drug resistance and drug residues in foods (milk/meat/eggs) of animal origin.

Introduction to AI in Toxicology

Toxicology is the scientific study of the adverse effects of chemical, physical, or biological agents on living organisms and the environment. It explores the mechanisms of toxicity, prevention, and mitigation, while applying this knowledge to safety evaluation and risk assessment of xenobiotics. It encompasses various sub-disciplines like chemical, organ-specific, genetic, environmental, and clinical toxicology, as well as toxicokinetic and regulatory risk assessment. Traditionally, toxicological assessments involve complex experimental models, including in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies, which are time-consuming and resource-intensive. This is where AI steps in to revolutionize the field.

Artificial Intelligence is a branch of computer science focused on developing systems capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, and decision-making. Its subdomains—such as machine learning (ML), deep learning (DL), and natural language processing (NLP). In toxicology, AI, especially machine learning (ML), is applied to predict and evaluate chemical toxicokinetic and toxicity. ML uses algorithms to train computational models for problem-solving, and is categorized into supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning methods. These AI techniques are increasingly utilized in toxicology for analyzing complex data and enhancing safety predictions. They are increasingly being used in various areas of toxicology, such as neurotoxicity, cardiovascular toxicology, nanotoxicology, toxicokinetic, dermal toxicity, and carcinogenesis. These approaches provide enhanced predictive and analytical capabilities across these diverse toxicological fields.AI methods can enhance in silico toxicology by integrating various data sources, including chemical structures, biological information, and in vitro results. This improves predictions of human toxicity, reducing the need for experimental studies, especially in vivo animal testing.

Antibiotics serve as a backbone of modern clinical management but are currently facing serious threats from nosocomial and community emerging antimicrobial-resistance (AMR). The misuse and overuse of antibiotics and other antimicrobial agents in humans and animals have accelerated the development of resistant strains. Amongst the drug-resistant microbes, major threat is posed by the ESKAPEE group, an acronym for Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter spp., and Escherichia coli, comprising high to critical drug-resistant, World Health Organization Critical Priority I and II pathogens. The dry pipeline of effective and new antibiotics further exacerbates the situation with looming threat of heading to a ‘post-antibiotic era’. In such daring scenario of AMR, where AMR is expected to be the largest killer by 2050, it is imperative to understand the AMR development mechanism in bacteria as survival mechanism to find out way to mitigate AMR development and transfer.

Herbal medicines have become popular these days as complementary therapies for various disorders. These are available as single compounds, enriched extracts, or polyherbal preparations. The polyherbal formulations behave very differently as compared to the single compounds due to the interaction of different chemical constituents, present therein, with multiple receptors/targets in the biological system. The presence of the multiple chemical constituents is also likely to exhibit pharmacokinetic and metabolic interactions. Thus, it becomes difficult to monitor and predict the exact pharmacokinetic profile of all the chemical constituentspresent in a polyherbal formulation (He et al. 2011; Xie et al. 2012). As a result, pharmacokinetic studies of polyherbal formulations have been a long-standing hurdlein phytotherapy research. Conventional scientific approach for studying thepharmacological behaviour of a multicomponent therapy is to isolate the individualcompound and study the effect of these compounds on various targets and enzymes, independently. To rationalize the use of herbal medicines,a clear understanding of their pharmacokinetics and metabolism in the physiologicalsystem is required. A fundamental knowledge of pharmacokinetics of phytopharmaceuticals will be helpful inauthenticating their use.

Nitrovasodilators are pharmaceutically key signalling molecule in the cardiovascular, immune and central nervous systems, and crucial steps in the regulation of NO bioavailability in health and diseases. These agents are well characterized and responsible for vasodilation by donation of nitric oxide (NO), and are principally employed for the treatment and prevention of angina pectoris, several cardiac diseases and regulation of vascular homeostasis (Carlstrom et al., 2024). NO has also been implicated in the pathology of many inflammatory diseases, including arthritis, myocarditis, colitis, and nephritis and a large number of pathologic conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative diseases. Several alternative strategies to increase NO signalling in the cardiovascular system have recently emerged, with promising therapeutic potential (Lundberg eta al., 2015). Nitroglycerin is commonly used in the treatment of angina pectoris because of its ability to decrease myocardial oxygen consumption. The use of nitroglycerin in the treatment of angina pectoris began not long after its original synthesis in 1847. Since then, the discovery of nitric oxide as a biological effector and better understanding of its roles in vasodilation, cell permeability, platelet function, inflammation, and other vascular processes have advanced our knowledge of the hemodynamic (mostly mediated through vasodilation of capacitance and conductance arteries) and nonhemodynamic effects of organic nitrate therapy, via both nitric oxide–dependent and –independent mechanisms (Divakaran and Loscalzo, 2017). These encompasses the identification of new pathways for enhancing NO synthase activity; ways to amplify the nitrate–nitrite–NO pathway; novel classes of NO-donating drugs; drugs that limit NO metabolism through effects on reactive oxygen species (Lundberg et al., 2015; Roy et al., 2023). Apart from the organic nitrates, direct activators of soluble guanylate cyclase, L-arginine, phosphodiesterase inhibitors and some other drugs also play critical role in vasoprotection (Gewaltig and Kojda, 2002).

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is known for many biological activities including potent cardioprotective properties. Meta analysis of human data strongly correlated diminished plasma level of DHEA with hypertension and age related anomalies and has been in clinical trial for efficacies against CVDs and hypertension. It was isolated for the first time in 1934 by Butenandt and Dannenbaum, later in 1944 extracted from human plasma (Oka et al., 2007). It is a 3β-hydroxysteroid, metabolized from pregnenolone, secreted from cells of zonareticulata of adrenal gland. Age-related decline in serum DHEA and DHEA-S(sulphate) is found to be associated with number of diseases including cardiovascular diseases, insulin resistance, cancer etc. (Arlt et al., 1999). Besides, DHEA dilates arteries, modulate hypoxia-induced vasoconstriction by activating potassium channels through soluble guanylatecyclase (sGC) activation, (Oka et al., 2007) and enhance endothelial function in particular via increasing nitric oxide synthesis (Haixian et al., 2019), induced relaxation in high K+ -induced contraction in thoracic aorta of rat embryo (Ochi et al., 2018). However, DHEA has never been explored as a vasorelaxant in mesenteric vascular bed, the major resistance bed of the circulatory system as well as its contribution in blockade of VDCC as possible mechanism for vasorelaxation. To date, the physiological role of DHEA in systemic vascular tissue as a vasorelaxant remains largely unknown and its potential use in the treatment of hypertension in human still remain inconclusive due to the increase in the risk of hormone driven cancer (Clark et al, 2018). Hence, we have chosen to explore the potential of DHEA as a vasorelaxant in conduit blood vessels like aorta and resistance blood vessels like mesenteric artery and elucidation of possible mechanism of vasorelaxation. Further, we also wanted to test the hypothesis whether in-vivo treatment of hypertensive rats with proven traditional medicine with known efficacy and acceptability could restore the level of DHEA in animal model of hypertension so as to have the beneficial effect of DHEA but without any adverse effect from external administration.

Food Animals are the main protein source for human nutrition in the world.Sub-therapeutic doses of antibiotics are commonly used in food animal production, through their addition in feed and wateras antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs). Animal production is considered one of the main sources of antimicrobial resistances (AMR), thus the research for alternative strategies to the use of antibiotics in animal diet is essential to f ight the emergence of AMR. Currently, AMR causes the death of 700,000 people per year and it is forecasted that this will increase exponentially to 10 million by 2050, becoming the main cause of death worldwide.The reduction of antimicrobial resistance is a major challenge for the scientific community. In a few decades, infections by resistant bacteria are forecasted to be the main cause of death in the world. The withdrawal of antibiotics as growth promoters and their preventive use in animal production is essential to avoid these resistances, but this may impair productivity and health due to the increase in gut inflammation. The best alternative to Antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) is a general improvement of conditions for food animals. In order to start a reformation of the Food Animal Industry as a whole, it’s essential to research to find out effective, resistance rare, low toxic and affordable alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters. Culinary herbs derived bioactives may be the promising products to address this challenge because it is traditionally proven to restore the gastrointestinal health due to beneficial effects on microbiota composition, mucosal barrier integrity, and immune system to control inflammation.

Animal models in diabetes research are very common when most of the existing models are developed as a conventional model either for Type 1 or for T2D. But very often a conventional model of diabetes cannot demonstrate the specific pathogenesis of diabetes related complications. Therefore, the necessity of the individual and specific model for diabetic complications has been raised in the recent years to achieve the authentic outcomes of specific research aims. A number of animal models of diabetic neuropathy have been developed in last few decades approaching from diverse point of views. However, most of them did not receive much popularity because of their considerable number of limitations and disadvantages. In a comprehensive review, Harati [4] reported that the major handicap in studying diabetic neuropathies is the lack of a suitable animal model that addresses acute and chronic events leading to diabetic neuropathy. Hence, in this review, the pathogenesis, advantages, disadvantages, and limitations of several genetic and nongenetic animal models of diabetic neuropathy have been discussed to substantiate their efficacy for human study and in order to guide diabetes research groups to more accurately select the most appropriate models to address their specific research questions.