eChapters

1.1 Introduction Millets were one of the first crops to be domesticated by mankind in Asia and Africa which later spread across the globe as critical food sources to the evolving civilizations. The earliest evidence of millets has been found in the Indus civilization around 3000 BC. Millets are a collective group of small-seeded annual grasses that are grown as grain crops, primarily on marginal land in dry areas of temperate, sub-tropical and tropical regions (FAO). However, due to the popularity of the cereal crops like wheat, rice and maize; millets have lost dominion and have become an underutilized crop in last few decades. Millets have the potential to be the crop of the future, as our major crops have reached yield plateau, also changing climate has introduced several new biotic and abiotic stresses to the major crops, so to feed the ever-growing population we need to shift towards other potential crops. India is the largest producer of millet as it contributes about 41% of the total millet production of the world (APEDA, 2020).

1.1 Introduction Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], a cultivated diploid (2n = 20) tropical cereal C4 grass plant, is currently the fifth most important cereal crop grown in the world and the first important crop in Sudan where drought stress is a major productivity-limiting factor since most of the sorghum is grown under rain-fed conditions. It is a monocotyledon plant of tropical origin, belonging to the Poaceae family. Starch, followed by protein, fat, and fibre, makes up the majority of sorghum’s nutritional makeup, which is similar to maize in terms of its nutritional content. Compared to other cereals, including wheat and maize, the crop exhibits comparatively good water use efficiency. Sorghum is a valuable botanical model crop for other tropical grasses with complex genomes that use C4 photosynthesis due to its vast adaption to severe settings, resistance to stress conditions, diverse germplasm collections, and short (710 Mb) genome size. Sorghum, a historically important source of food and a staple crop, is becoming a crop with a variety of applications, including food, fuel, fodder, and a model for the functional genetics and genomics of tropical grasses.

1.1 Introduction Millets are the most ancient grains that have been cultivated since time immemorial and consumed as food, feed and pastures. Millets are considered nutraceuticals’ since they possess significantly higher nutritional qualities compared to other cereals. Millets are grown across the world for grains and human food due to their nutritional advantages and ability to withstand adversities. Millets are preferred over other grains due to their short life cycle, low input requirement and ensured production with in-built genetic tolerance for abiotic stresses. Major millets include Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), while there are numerous minor millets classified as small millets. With an extent of over 0.87 lakh ha and a production of 0.66 kg ha-1, India is the world leader in small millet production (Maitra and Shankar, 2019). Small millets are primarily grown on rainfed uplands in arid and semi-arid climates with sub-optimal management. Following the green revolution due to extreme demands for food, the main focus in India was on the production of fine cereals mainly rice and wheat to overcome hunger and poverty, while millets became ignored grains. Furthermore, urbanization, increased affluence and dietary changes relegated millets to the status of poor man’s food. However, due to a re-evaluation of nutritious characteristics, millets have recently regained their lost prestige (Maitra, 2020).

1.1 Introduction Among the C4 grasses known as panicoids (subfamily: panicoideae), which also includes nutrient-rich cereals like millets and sorghum as well as commercially valuable crops like switchgrass, napier grass, and guinea grass, are bioenergy feedstocks like sugarcane and miscanthus. Among all, millets overpowered others in terms of biotic/abiotic stress resilience, resource sustainability as well as nutritional benefits. Minor millets, often known as nutritional cereals, are a type of small-seeded grains that are members of the Poaceae family. Up to 35 kinds of grass from 20 genera are well-known for being minor millets. Finger millet, foxtail, proso millet, barnyard millet, kodo millet, and little millet are the most significant small millets that are grown worldwide. India is the leading producer and consumer of millet crops and their products. The total area of small millets in India is around 1.63 m ha, with a production of 1.82 m tones during the year 2016- 17 (Annual progress report 2018-19, ICAR-AICRP on small millets).

1. 1 Introduction, Origin and Taxonomy Barnyard millet (Echinochloa species) is one of the oldest domesticated small millet crops which can be grown in both warm and temperate regions of the world and it is widely cultivated in Asia. It is distributed predominantly in the Indian subcontinent, China, Japan, and Korea and also to some extent in Africa and United States. In India, this crop is mainly grown in Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Gujarat and the hills of Uttarakhand (Kumar et al., 2000). It ranks fourth in terms of production amongst the small millets. Indian Barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) and Japanese Barnyard millet (Echinochloa esculenta) are the two important species of the barnyard millet. Barnyard millet is majorly grown for human consumption, though it is also grown for livestock feed and fodder (Sood et al., 2015).

1.1 Introduction Millets are nutri-cereals that have been the oldest food since time immemorial and are decisively the first cereal grain to be used for domestic purposes. Millets generally include small seeded members of the Poaceae family globally used for food and fodder purposes. The word “millet” emanated from the French word “Mile” which means “thousand” signifying that a small quantity of millet may contain thousands of grains. Millets were erstwhile produced in marginal or degraded terrains with very low soil nutrients and semi-arid conditions with very little rainfall. After the green revolution, there was a shift away from millet in favour of wheat, rice, and maize as a result of more land becoming irrigated to alleviate extreme poverty and malnourishment in the country and to feed millions. Most of the millet crops possess the C4 photosynthetic pathway and are therefore able to withstand frequent changes due to environmental stresses. Consequently, millet production has declined and within a few decades post-green revolution, crops that were once eaten by every household were transformed into fodder crops. Millets are considered as ‘good for the planet crops’ as they take less to give more, due to such multi-faceted qualities millets are considered as miracle crops.

1.1 Introduction Millets are one of the world’s earliest food grains, arguably the first cereal grain utilized for household uses. It has been a cherished crop in India for ages and constitutes a staple food for over one-third of the world’s population. Recently ICAR has designated millets as “Shree Anna”. Several types of small-seeded cereals are grouped together as small millets. These crops offer a reliable and affordable harvest from the regions where the primary cereals fail to produce a sustainable yield. Small millets are insignificant in terms of food production, but they are vital as staple foods in their particular ecosystems. Small millets are more than just finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and include kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) and barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentaceae). The rest of the two small millets namely, fonio millet (Digitaria exilis) and teff (Eragrostis tef) are of local significance in Africa. Small millets have a high nutritional value, but also their demand has deteriorated due to a lack of standard processing techniques to compete with fine cereals. Small millets have a huge potential to satisfy our nutritional needs, therefore we must push ourselves and make efforts to enhance its utilization by incorporating them into our daily diet.

1.1 Introduction Millets are small-grained ancient cereal crops that were renowned as one of the oldest sources of nourishment in prehistoric times. They are believed to have been cultivated since 8000 BC. Apart from providing nutritious grains, these crops are well adapted to the marginal and dryland ecosystems due to their climatic resilience, biotic stress tolerance, and capacity to flourish in the wild. Among the millets, small millets make up a distinct subgroup and comprise of finger millet (Eleusine coracana), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), foxtail millet (Setaria italica), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum), kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) and brown top millet (Brachiaria ramosa L.) in India along with a few more cereals like teff, fonio, job’s tears and guinea millet in some other parts of the world. As fine cereals gained popularity after the 1960s, the acreage and significance of these crops began to decrease. In recent years the drastic climate change has made us to focus on underutilized crops.

Introduction Millets are a group of annual grasses which are small seeded, hardy, drought tolerant, low maintenance and mainly found in semi-arid regions. The historic importance of millets can be derived from various types of traditional dishes which uses millets like roti and chapati flatbreads in India, uji (a type of porridge), injera (a fermented flatbread commonly eaten in Ethiopia) and beer in Africa, and kasha and fermented drinks in Eastern Europe. Millets are the 6th most important cereal grain in the world. India, China and Nigeria are the largest producers of millets, and the Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics estimates that in Africa and Asia more than 90 million people depend on millets in their diets. There are hundreds of millet types, but the major types grown commercially are: proso millet, foxtail millet, pearl millet, Japanese barnyard millet and browntop millet. In this book chapter, we will mainly focus on two minor millets i.e., Teff and Fonio

Introduction The world recently celebrated the birth of its eighth billionth baby, a major milestone in the development of the human race and the doubling of our numbers in 47 years. This tremendous growth has been driven by ambitious advances in technology and health care, soaring achievements of global prosperity and a longer life expectancy that has come to a staggering 72 years. However, the glory of these achievements is marred by how we are failing the lion’s share of the global population in meeting their basic requirements. Almost one in seven people on our planet do not have enough to eat. Food and nutritional insecurity are detrimental to human development and are a major brake on overall socio-economic development which downplays any major accomplishments we have made since not having enough to eat is an international security issue. Adequate food production, easy access and the capacity to buy food, relevance concerning nutrition and stability of these elements are all necessary for sustainable food security (Helland and Sorbo, 2014).

1.1 Introduction In parallel with the expansion of organically cultivated land and low-input agricultural system, there is an increasing demand for crops that have promising potentials to be grown successfully in these systems. Buckwheat is generally sown in smaller areas, which may be found suitable for low-input agricultural systems. Buckwheat is a fast-growing crop with a variety of utilizations. Buckwheat, one of the pseudo and minor-cereals, has the ability to satisfy the rapidly rising population’s ever-increasing food need in the nation’s hill regions in the context of changing climatic conditions. It is also known as common buckwheat or Fagopyrum esculentum, it is not a cereal grain, but rather a seed that is related to rhubarb and sorrel. It has a unique nutty flavour that makes it an excellent ingredient in a variety of dishes. It is known in India by a variety of names, including ogal, phaphar, bresha, mittahe dyat, dro, and brotitae.

1.1 Introduction Amaranth is considered as one of the “superfoods” of the coming century due to its exceptional qualities in various aspects. However, the crop is not a novel discovery, and it has faced quite a number of obstacles in order to get to where it is today in terms of nutritional status and acceptance by modern day consumers as a food which is able to provide nutrition. Despite the setbacks and disuse, Amaranth has had three redeeming qualities that have earned its standing as a “superfood.”In recent years, the grain amaranths have garnered increased attention because of their nutritional qualities and, in particular, the nutritional value of the seed protein. Amaranth seed is higher in fiber (8%) than the grain of most cereals.

Introduction Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) belongs to the family Cruciferae or Brassicaceae having chromosome number 2n=18. ‘Cole wart,’ a wild non-heading variety of Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris, is the ancestor of cabbage. The majority of the 100 species that make up the genus Brassica are indigenous to the Mediterranean region. It is also believed that Germany is where the true-headed cabbage originated. Currently, mostly cabbage is grown in the country like Caribbean, Indonesia, Malaysia, Central Asia, and Western and Eastern America.The third-largest producer of cabbage worldwide is India. The majority of the nation’s states where it is grown include UP, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, WB, MH, and Karnataka. Annually in India, cabbage was produced around in the area of 418 thousand hectares and production of 9.72 million metric tons with the productivity of 22.7MT/hectares (NHB, 2021-22). The other main producers in the globe, in addition to India, are China, Russia, Japan, Korea, the USA, Indonesia, and Ukraine.

Introduction Cauliflower Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) is a cold season vegetable cropbelongs to family cruciferous or Brassicaceae family with somatic chromosome number 2n = 18. Cauliflower is derived from the Latin word i.e., ‘caulis’ means stem and ‘floris’ means flower and wild progenitor is Brassica cretica. In India, cauliflower is grown in two different varieties: snowball type and tropical type. However, at first, other varieties of cauliflower, such as the European and Cornish types from England, were also brought to India. Later, the Cornish and European forms of cauliflower were intercrossed to develop the tropical type of cauliflower. The Indian type or tropical type of cauliflower can be grown in hot weather and high rainfall condition therefore, such type of cauliflower is mostly grown in Indian plains during the month of May to January followed by temperate type or snowball group based on the temperature based varietal classification.

Introduction In India, knol-khol (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes) is belongs to family brassicaceae with chromosome number is 2n=18. It is grown in north eastern states of India, J &K, West Bengal, Assam, Punjab, and other regions of southern India also. It is distinguished by the formation of knobs(tuber) is a thickening of the stem tissue above the cotyledons. This knob is picked for human use as a raw or cooked vegetable, while young leaves are also utilized in some areas. Economic Importance & Uses Knol-khol, also known as kohlrabi or German turnip, is a biennial vegetable that belongs to the same family as cabbage and broccoli. It is a popular crop in many parts of the world, including Europe, Asia, and the Americas.

Introduction The ‘Brussels sprouts’ (Brassica oleracea L. var. gemmifera) coming under Brassicaceae family with chromosome number 2n=18 preferred by farmer for its edible green bud or sprouts (small heads that resemble miniature cabbages). It is a robust, slow-growing, longseason vegetable. The “sprouts” are formed in the leaf axils, beginning at the base of the stem and progressing upward. Brussels sprouts are high in vitamin A and C, as well as folic acid and dietary fiber. It also has anticancer effects due to the presence of sulforaphane. Similarly, to other Brassicas, Brussels sprouts contain indole-3-carbinol, which inhibit cancer cell growth. The temperate regions in the hills have the greatest potential for commercial production of brussels sprouts, followed by coastal regions with prolonged cool falls.

Introduction Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica) having chromosome number 2n=2x=18 is a native of Mediterranean region. The broccoli was developed in eastern Mediterranean region and Italy is the main diversification which was later introduced into England about 1720. It is a cool season crop which produces fleshy green flower heads arranged on branches sprouting from thick edible stalk in such way that it looks like a miniature bonsai tree. It has the same family as cabbage and cauliflower. Even though it resembles cauliflower by forming head like structure but it has longer flower stalks with loose large green terminal head (10 to 20 cm). In Italy broccoli is called as broccoli which means “the flowering crest of a cabbage.” Due to the presence of bountiful nutritious properties, it is also known as “Crown Jewel of Nutrition”. It is a great source of vitamins A, B and C and minerals like iron, fibre, calcium, zinc, magnesium etc. Apart from the minerals and vitamin it also a rich source of riboflavin, thiamine and niacin.

Introduction Kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala) belongs to family Cruciferae or Brassicaceae is a under exploited vegetable crop. It is introduced in 19th century. Economic Importance and Uses Its edible part is leaves and contains amazing source of amino acids, vitamins and minerals which has many medical advantages. It helps in lowering of blood cholesterol level which helps in lessening the heart illness. Kale leaves is also rich source of beta carotene, ascorbic acid and phylloquinone. Kale is a nutritious vegetable that is rich in vitamins A, C, and K, as well as calcium and iron. It is also a good source of antioxidants and fiber, making it a popular choice for health-conscious consumers. Kale is not so popular crop in India therefore it confined to very few states of Northern India like HP, UP, J & K, Pb and Haryana.

Introduction Chinese cabbage (Brassica compestris var. pekinensis i.e., heading type and Brassica compestris var. chinensis i.e., non-heading type) with chromosome number 2n=20 is a green leafy vegetable that has come under the same family Cruciferae as cabbage. It is also called as celery cabbage, Bok choy, Peking cabbage, snow cabbage, napa cabbage etc. according to the places. It is originated from China and later adopted to other countries, mostly in Asian countries. Even though not being a member of cole group, it is regarded as one because of the similarity in cultural practices, breeding systems, same growing season and many other features that resembles apart from being a brassica vegetable. The best planting season for Chinese cabbages is in early spring to harvest as a late spring and after mid-summer for a fall crop. The inner leaves of the plant are light yellow colour with long (oblong) shaped head which is covered by compact wrinkled, profuse and light green leaves. Generally, the crop has high nutritional value due to which its demand is increasing tremendously. The potassium content of the crop is high with low fat content. It is also rich in vitamin C, fiber, folate as well as beta carotene and calcium are also more as compared to the cabbage due its leaves colour

Introduction Onion is a cool season bulb vegetable of high economic importance. According to Vavilov, Central Asia is the primary centre of origin; maximum species were found in the Mediterranean region in the West to Central Asia in the East. In India, onion was introduced around 600BC and from here it was introduced to the rest of the world. The largest onion-producing states in India include Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Bihar, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh, which together account for approximately 90% of the nation’s total onion output. The expected share of Maharashtra in 2019-2020 is about 42.53% in onion production with 11363.00 tonnes. Onion has highest export value among vegetables, the total value earned in the year 2019 was ? 2660.79 crores (NHB, 2020). Onion contains about 89% water, 4% sugar, 1% protein, 2% fat. It also contains vitamin C, vitamin B6, folic acid and many other nutrients in trace amounts. Onion bulbs and onion greens are used in various dishes all over the world in cooked, as well as raw form. Red and yellow onions are used in soups because of their sweet taste. White onions are traditionally used in classic Mexican cuisine and also for dehydration purpose. India, Mexico, U.S., Turkey, Pakistan, etc are the major exporters of onion while the major importers of onion are Malaysia, UAE, Canada, Japan, etc.

Introduction Garlic (Allium sativum L.) belongs to the monocotyledonous family Alliaceae or Amaryllidacea; Chromosome No. 2n=2x=16. In India, it is the second most extensively grown bulb crop after onion. According to several botanists (Candolle, 1985; Dscalov and Popov,1941; Kuznetsov, 1948 and Regel, 1975) garlic was cultivated and utilised by Mediterranean population since medieval time. Origin, History and Distribution Central Asia, particularly elevated highland of Pamir and Tian Shan is considered as the primary centre of origin of garlic (Vavilov, 1926), however Caucasus and North Africa is considered as the secondary centre of origin. Allium longicuspis is considered as the wild ancestor of garlic. The history of garlic usage dates back to 3000 B.C when it was used in Egyptians tombs likewise its first usage in modern era occurred during 10th century in England (Shinde and Sontakke, 1986) and its first introduction in North and South America was done by Spanish and Portugese settlers during fifteenth century; introduction and usage of garlic in other European and Asian countries occurred subsequently.

Introduction The leek (Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum L.) belongs to the Alliaceae family and is a non-bulb-forming crop. It is consumed raw by itself, combined with other foods in salads, and cooked as flavoring in soups and stews. It is a preferred vegetable in a kitchen garden but is not commercially farmed in India. Leek has chromosome 2n=4X=32, which makes it an autotetraploid in nature. It is a vigorous biennial herbaceous cultivar that has never been discovered in its wild form. For their blanched stems and leaves, leeks are grown. It is a biennial plant that is used to flavor soups and eaten as a salad. The leek was first domesticated in the Eastern Mediterranean, where it was later brought to middle Europe by the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians. Leeks may have originated in Central Asia and/or Europe, according to several theories. Since the majority of the Allium species are found worldwide, their distribution within the northern hemisphere is not uniform.

Introduction Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is a member of the Umbelliferae/Apiaceae family. Carrots is an important primitive cool season root vegetable crop cultivated in both tropical and temperate climatic conditions. Carrot is a significant winter root vegetable grown throughout India. Carrots are said to have originated in Afghanistan in western Asia, which is the principal source of variation. Carrots were grown in Asia Minor in the 10th and 11th centuries. It arrived in India from Persia in the 13th or 14th century. Its medicinal cultivation originated between 2000 and 3000 years ago. Carrots are a major root crop in European countries such as the United States, China, Japan, and India. Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Rajasthan are the main carrot-growing states in India. During 2020-21, India produces 1885 thousand metric tonnes of carrot from 108 thousand hectares of carrot production. During 2020-21, Haryana ranked top in both area (19.83 thousand hectares) and production (337.43 thousand metric tonnes) of carrot in India (Anonymous, 2020). Carrot possesses antidiabetic, cholesterol and cardiovascular disease decreasing, anti-hypertensive, hepatoprotective, Reno-protective, and anti-inflammatory effects. Carrot roots are rich in carotene, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, ascorbic acid, niacin, and sugar.

Introduction The botanical name of carrot is Raphanus sativus which belongs to the family Brassicaceae having haploid chromosome number of x = 9 and is believed to be originated from Europe and Asia. Radish is one of the most ancient and popular leaf cum root vegetables in both tropical and temperate regions. Radish probably originated in Europe and Asia. Radishes were extensively cultivated in Egypt and ancient records show that radishes were eaten before the pyramids were built. It had spread to China during 500 BC and to Japan during AD 700. The recent study has indicated that east of Mediterranean region, most probably China is the centre of origin of radish. Wild state of radish is not known. Previously it was believed to haveevolved from a common weed Raphanus raphanistrum Linn in Europe but now it is believed to have been evolved from more a variety of sources. As it is a short duration annual or biennial crop, it can be widely used in sequence cropping, companion cropping and intercropping in widely spaced crops. Roots are pink in colour due to presence of anthocyanin pigment.

Introduction Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) is a very popular herbaceous biennial root vegetable mainly grown for its edible roots and leaves, it is commonly known as Chukander in Hindi, but also has different local names depending on the area, for instance, it is called Bita gacha in Bengali, Bita in Marathi, Beet in Punjab, Salada in Gujarati, Dumpamokka in Telugu, and Bit in Malayalam etc (Kumar, 2015). It belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae (now Amaranthaceae). The chromosome number of beetroot is 2n = 18. It is used as a cooked vegetable, salad, and for pickling and canning. Origin and distribution The origin of beetroot (Beta vulgaris) can be traced back to the Mediterranean region and the Middle East.

Introduction Turnip (Brassica rapa subsp. repifera L.) is a root vegetable grown in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions of India that is commonly grown for its edible root and leaves. The root is typically white or cream-colored with a slightly purple or pink top, and has a slightly sweet and earthy flavor. The leaves, which are also edible, have a slightly bitter taste and are typically used in soups, stews, and salads. Turnips are a coolseason crop and are typically planted in the spring or fall. They are hardy and can tolerate frost, making them a popular choice for fall and winter gardens. Turnips are a very nutritious vegetable, they are a good source of vitamin C, fiber, and potassium, as well as other minerals and vitamins. They are also low in calories and high in antioxidants. The root contains a compound called glucosinolate, which has been shown to have anti-cancer properties.

Introduction Garden Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is a small, round, green seed that is commonly eaten as a vegetable. It is a legume, which means it is part of the same family as beans, lentils, and peanuts. Its chromosome number is 2n=14. Peas are typically eaten fresh, frozen, or canned, and are often used in soups, stews, and casseroles. They are a good source of protein, fiber, various vitamins and minerals. Peas can be grown in a garden or farm and it is considered a staple food in many countries. Origin and Distribution Garden peas have a long history of cultivation and have been enjoyed as a food source for centuries. The exact origin of garden peas is believed to be in Central Asia. The distribution of garden peas expanded as they were introduced to different regions and adapted to various climates. They were brought to Europe during ancient times and became popular as a staple crop in many countries. The cultivation of garden peas also spread to Asia, Africa, and the Americas through the process of exploration and colonization. In modern times, garden peas are grown globally in both temperate and cool climates.

Introduction The popular legume crop known as broad beans, or Vicia faba in scientific jargon, is valued for its diversity and nutritional content. Broad beans have a long history that dates back thousands of years, and they have been used extensively in many cuisines and agricultural practises all over the world. With the use of references from reputable sources, this introduction will discuss the traits, cultivation, and health benefits of broad beans. Annual plants in the Fabaceae family, broad beans have a cool growing season. They originate from the Mediterranean region, but due to their resilience to various climatic conditions, they have been grown in numerous locations across the world. With a height of up to one metre, the plants are renowned for their vigorous growth. Large, podded fruits with many seeds or beans are produced by broad bean plants. Broad bean cultivation is a rather simple process

Introduction Palak (Beta vulgaris L. var. bengalensis), also known as spinach beet or perpetual spinach, Saag, Indian Spinach, beet leaf, Swiss chard and Palongpalang. is a leafy green vegetable that is closely related to Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris). And it belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae. It is a popular and versatile vegetable known for its nutritious leaves and mild flavour. Palak shares similarities with both spinach (Spinacia oleracea) and beetroot (Beta vulgaris). The leaves of palak are tender and similar in appearance to spinach leaves. They are dark green and have a slightly glossy texture. The flavour of palak is milder compared to spinach, with a pleasant earthy taste. This makes it a versatile ingredient that can be used in various culinary preparations. Palak is often grown as a cool-season vegetable, as it can tolerate cool temperatures better than spinach. It is appreciated for its ability to produce a continuous harvest of leaves over an extended period, hence the name “perpetual spinach.” This characteristic makes it a valuable addition to home gardens and commercial production.

Introduction Spinach, scientifically known as Spinacia oleracea, is a versatile leafy green vegetable that is widely consumed and enjoyed for its nutritional benefits and culinary uses. Believed to have originated in Persia (modern-day Iran), spinach has been cultivated and consumed for centuries in various regions of the world. It is highly regarded for its vibrant green leaves and is a popular ingredient in salads, soups, smoothies, and cooked dishes. Spinach is an annual plant, meaning it completes its life cycle within one year. It has an upright growth habit with an erect, branched stem that can reach a height of about 30-60 cm. Due to its delicate flavor and versatility, spinach is used in various culinary preparations. It can be consumed raw in salads or added to sandwiches for a fresh and nutritious crunch. Spinach is commonly cooked as well, either sautéed, steamed, or included in soups, stews, and stir-fries. Its mild taste makes it an adaptable ingredient that complements a wide range of dishes (Thind et al., 2021)

Introduction The Asteraceae family includes Lactuca sativa, better known as lettuce, which is cultivated as a leafy vegetable. Due to its usage in the creation of salad, soup, and vegetable curries, this plant is well-known around the world. Additionally, this herb has fantastic therapeutic qualities. Because of its flavor and excellent nutritional content, lettuce is one of the most popular raw green leafy vegetables and is grown all over the world. It is thought to be a crucial source of phytonutrients. Significant physical and genetic differences define it. The Egyptians were the first people to plant this leafy crop. It is currently manufactured all over the world and used in forensic medicine to treat a variety of conditions, including as pain, inflammation and issues with the stomach, as well as urinary tract infections. Its pharmacological potential, which includes antibacterial, antioxidant, neuroprotective, and hypnotic actions, has been scientifically supported by a number of research.

Introduction The asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) is an herbaceous perennial plant and known as Shatawar in Hindi. It is grown for tender succulent shoots known as ‘Spears’ which are used as vegetable and in the preparation of soup. Once the plant established, it continues to produce yield for 10-15 years. The juice obtained from spears contain a white crystalline substance called ‘Asparagine’ which has diuretic properties. Asparagus is a type of vegetable that is commonly enjoyed for its unique taste and nutritional benefits. Asparagus has a distinctive spear-like shape, with a green, purple, or white colour depending on the variety. Asparagus is a low-calorie (20 Kcal) vegetable that is rich in protein (2.2 g), vitamins, including vitamins B1 (0.143 g), Vitamin B2 (0.141 g), Vitamin C (5.6 g), Vitamin E (1.13 g) and Vitamin K (41.6 µg), as well as minerals including calcium (24 mg), iron (2.14 mg), potassium (202 mg), zinc (0.54 mg), sodium (2.0 mg) and magnesium (14 mg) per 100 g raw asparagus. It is also a good source of antioxidants, which help to protect the body against damage from free radicals. Asparagus can be cooked in a variety of ways, including boiling, steaming, roasting, or grilling. It is a popular ingredient in many dishes, such as salads, soups, pastas, and stir fries. Asparagus is also often served as a side dish, either on its own or with other vegetables.

Introduction The Globe artichoke is a herbaceous perennial crop that is grown for its tender, edible, immature flower buds. It is botanically known as (Cynara scolymus L.) and having chromosome number 2n=2x=34. The globe artichoke belongs to the family Compositae, and it originates in the Mediterranean Basin, where it was most likely introduced as a crop in about the first century AD (Sonnante et al., 2007). The globe artichoke is presently grown as an annual crop or a perennial crop in different regions of the world. The increasing demand for globe artichokes as a source of pharmaceuticals and modern functional foods has created new challenges for producers, necessitating the concurrent development of new production hubs and the use of cutting-edge technology in established growing regions that can support the global market.

Introduction The “rhubarb and pie plant,” also known as Rheum rhaponticum L., is a member of the Polygonaceae family. Diploid (2n = 2x = 22), tetraploid (2n = 4x = 44), or hexaploid (2n = 6x = 66) rheum species are the three possible forms. The long, thick leafstalk, often called the petiole, is used to make pies and sauces. The rhubarb stalks’ colour may range from the typically recognized crimson red to pale pink with specks to plain light green. Rhubarb is a perennial plant that thrives in cold climates and is drought and winter tolerant. Edible petioles and leaves are the first springtime shoots to emerge. rhubarb was first cultivated in Italy and introduced to the continent in the year 1608. The earliest recorded use of rhubarb in the United States was in 1778, but by 1806 it had achieved broad acceptance. According to Lindley’s Treasury of Botany, the name comes from the Greek word rheo, meaning “to make one vomit,” because of the root’s laxative properties. It is a good source of carbohydrates (3.8g), protein (0.74 g), fibre (1.75 g) and fat (0.13g) and minerals like calcium (130 mg) and potassium (360 mg) per 100 grams of edible portion. There are numerous rhubarb cultivars contain bioactive substances such as flavonoids, anthraquinones, glycosides, tannins, volatile oils, and saponins.

Introduction Potato, scientifically known as Solanum tuberosum, is a starchy tuberous crop that belongs to the nightshade family, Solanaceae. It is one of the most widely consumed and important food crops worldwide. Potatoes are native to the Andes region of South America and have been cultivated for thousands of years. They have since become a staple food in many countries and have significant cultural and economic importance. Potatoes are known for their versatility, as they can be prepared and cooked in various ways. They are typically harvested from underground stems called tubers, which come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and colours. The most common varieties have brown or yellowish skin and white, yellow, or creamy flesh. However, there are also red, purple, and even blueskinned potatoes available. The cultivation of potatoes is widespread, with major potato-producing countries including China, India, Russia, the United States, and Germany. Potatoes are adaptable to different climates and can be grown in diverse environments. They are an important crop for food security and economic stability in many regions. Beyond their culinary significance, potatoes have also contributed to scientific advancements.

Mountains play a vital role in sustaining about 10 per cent of the world population directly as they are the major source of water supply and majority of rivers originate from these ecosystems thus sustain the life of people residing in the plains. In India hill and mountainous areas are vastly distributed all over the country with the major mountain ranges in the Himalayas and the Western Ghats. The Himalayas are extending in 2500 km length and 250 to 400 km breadth (Khanday et al. 2004). They are further classified in three major categories i.e Western Himalayas (including Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh), Central Himalayas (including eight hill districts of Uttarakhand), North Eastern Himalayas (including Sikkim, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Union Territory of Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, hill areas of Assam and Darjeeling district of West Bengal). Whereas Western Ghats also known as Sahyadri including border of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu .

Hilly areas of India, especially the Himalayas and the Nilgiris which are rich in their forests areas and watersheds have played a major role in maintaining climatic and ecological balance in the country for a long time. These hills and mountain areas have specific characteristics which differs them from plains in diversity of habitats for flora and fauna, ethnic diversity, topography, elevation, physiographic feature land use systems and socio-economic conditions. Agro-biodiversity The hills are characterized by rich agrobiodiversity. These rich agro-diversity elements have evolved, over the years due to association with the communities distributed along the mountain and hill slopes.

Besides diversities and advantages in hills, the communities sustain largely on subsistence farming due to following constraints A.Natural constraints in hills There are large number of Inherent limitations in hill agriculture like, remote areas, vulnerability, marginality , eroded soil and short growing seasons. These Inherent constraints can be judged by the use of unsustainability indicators of hill agriculture which further showed increased in soil erosion rates from sloping farmlands , leaving of agricultural land due to decreasing soil fertility, appearance of stones and rocks on the cultivated lands, reduction in forest and grazing areas and more emphasis on monocropping that widened the cycle of inadequate food production and lead to food insecurity and increasing unemployment and frustration (Table 3) (Shrestha, 1992). These natural constraints are.

As already discussed in above chapter there are various physical, geographical and environmental constraints that are associated with the hill agriculture, thus the scope for` agricultural policies based on modern input-intensive agriculture is inhibited in the hilly areas resulting in the majority of the hill communities to either live on subsistence agriculture or immigrating to other parts of the country for employment. The policies that might give successful results for any other state in India situated in the plains, may not prove to be fruitful in this hilly state. As the livelihood of the weaker sections in the hill areas is absolutely dependent on natural resources, their devastation will make the process of inclusive growth unsustainable in the long run. For sustainable agriculture it is necessary that agriculture of hill can be b understood in the right way and it should include all the necessary interventions on those activities in which farmers are dependent to make a livelihood. 

Soil conservation: it is using and managing land based on the capabilities of land itself, involving the application of the best practices to result in greatest profitable production without damaging the land Principles of soil conservation The aim of soil conservation is to obtain the maximum sustainable level of production from a given area of land whilst maintaining soil loss below a threshold level which theoretically, permits the natural rate of soil formation to keep pace with the rate of soil erosion. In addition, there may be a need to reduce erosion to control the loss of nutrients from agricultural land to prevent pollution of water bodies; to decrease rates of sedimentation in reservoirs, rivers, canals and ditches In the longer term, erosion has to be controlled to prevent land deteriorating in quality until it has to be abandoned and cannot be reclaimed, thereby limiting options for future landuse.

Introduction For sustainability hill agriculture water conservation issues are of great concern. Water is a generally limiting factor for crop production in hills and further water scarcity is arising at alarming rate due to climate change, declining soil productivity and inefficient management factors. Global warming is also putting the serious impact on the intensity, frequency and distribution of the rainfall. Further hill soils are ecologically fragile with undulated steep soils with low water retentive capacity where irrigation is not available. Moreover scope of supplying water by developing new water resources is limited thus under these conditions there is an urgent need for development of recent advanced agrotechniques to conserve and harvest natural water resources and protect the fragile environment of hills.

Farm economic efficiency of a specific area is an important factor of productivity and growth, where resources are scare and opportunities for developing and adopting better technologies have lately declining. No doubt, conventional farming is risky and farmers are reluctant to invert heavily in crop production. Modest increments in productivity are no longer sufficient to justify the investment of scarce resources as farming sector is small scale and resource poor, but integrated farming system assumes greater importance for sound management of farm resources to enhance the farm productivity, reduce the environmental degradation, improve the quality of life of resource poor farmers and to maintained sustainability. Farming system refers to the farm wherein two or more enterprises are integrated with the farm resources for achieving the fuller utilization, realize maximum profit and stabilize returns.

Introduction Agricultural extension plays a pivotal role in the advancement of agriculture in any nation. It encompasses the dissemination of knowledge, guidance, and assistance to farmers, rural communities, and various stakeholders involved in the agricultural domain. The primary objective of agricultural extension is to empower farmers to enhance their productivity, income, and overall quality of life. The concept of agricultural extension has undergone significant transformations across various countries, including India. This article will delve into the historical progression of agricultural extension both internationally and within the Indian context.

Introduction Since about 10,000 years ago, men and women have been rearing livestock and producing crops. Information about agricultural practices can be found in documents dating back over 3,000 years from ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. Agricultural extension services have evolved and developed in many parts of the world to address agricultural systems’ unique challenges and requirements. These initiatives aimed to provide farmers with scientific knowledge, technological advancements, and improved farming practices to enhance agricultural productivity.

Introduction The world of agriculture stands at the crossroads of innovation and tradition, and at the heart of this dynamic sector lies the crucial role of farm journalism. In the backdrop of evolving technologies, shifting market dynamics, and the everpressing need for sustainability, farm journalism emerges as a vital conduit of information, education, and advocacy for farmers and rural communities. This chapter delves into the multifaceted realm of farm journalism, exploring its definition, scope, guiding principles, and its indispensable functions and roles in the sphere of rural development.

Introduction India’s vast and diverse agricultural landscape has one of the greatest agricultural sectors. With over 60% of its people working in agriculture, India’s economy and food security heavily depend on agriculture. In recent years, the world has witnessed many difficulties, including information access restrictions, dispersed property ownership, and uncertainty brought on by climate change. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has emerged as a potent tool for empoweringfarmers, boosting production, promoting sustainable practices in response to these difficulties, and bringing game-changing transformations in Indian agriculture. India ranks second among Asian countries in the advanced user category. On the one hand, profit motivation, corporate expansion, community services, and rural welfare have been the goals of ICT-based agricultural models in India (Spielman et al., 2021).

Introduction Agriculture plays a vital role in human societies and economies around the world. It is the prime food source for human populations, ensuring a reliable supply of nutritious food for the health and well-being of people everywhere. It is a major contributor to the economy of many countries, particularly in the developing world, where it provides livelihoods for millions of people and supports local and national economies. Agriculture is both impacted by and contributes to climate change. However, sustainable agriculture cultivation can also help to reduce the consequences of climate change by decreasing emissions of greenhouse gas and increasing resilience to extreme weather events.

Introduction The Indian economy depends heavily on agriculture, which is also key to its expansion and advancement. In India, agriculture and related industries support more than two thirds of the people either directly or indirectly. 85 percent of Indian agriculture’s growers are small and marginal farmers (GOI, 2010-11). It is difficult for them to access markets, knowledge, loans, and agricultural extension services. As a result of the high transaction costs, the food sectors, finds challenges to buy agricultural products directly from farmers. This renders the supplychains ineffective and raises issues with food safety, lack of transparency, and traceability. Although debt is frequently stated as the direct cause of their misery, deeper problems including low scale operations, a lack of information, inadequate communication links with the wider market, etc., are also involve in these phenomena.

Introduction The primary mission of extension services is to facilitate desirable changes in human behaviour through educational means. These changes can encompass various aspects, including knowledge, skills, attitudes, understanding, goals,actions, and confidence. Effective communication is the cornerstone of an extension worker’s role. Their responsibility extends beyond merely informing farmers about improved practices; they are tasked with ensuring that the results of research and field trials are practically applied by farmers. Nevertheless, extension workers often encounter perplexing questions in their line of work.

Introduction In modern agriculture, soft resources like knowledge and skills are sometimes even more crucial than hard resources like inputs. In the 21st century, agriculture has to overcome a number of obstacles, including feeding an expanding population while a declining rural labour force, producing more feedstocks for a huge bioenergy market, supporting the overall development of many developing countries heavily dependent on agriculture, adopting more efficient and sustainable production techniques, and adapting to climate change (Colle, 2011). In order to make efficient and effective agricultural decisions, farmers are increasingly adopting information (Cash, 2001). Compared to the current availability of roughly 0.1 million personnel, the required number of extension agent who worked in field level is anticipated in between 1.3 to 1.5 million.