eChapters

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ vegetable contain anti-diabetic properties.
2. Bittergourd has _____ similar to bovine insulin.
3. Bittergourd is popularly seen as a _____.
4. Bittergourd is a _____ plant.

Bivalve and mollusc hatchery techniques are fundamental to modern aquaculture, offering controlled environments to induce spawning, facilitate larval development, and ensure juvenile growth. These hatcheries serve as the cornerstone for sustainable mollusc farming by supplying consistent and high-quality seed stock. Key procedures in these facilities include broodstock conditioning, induced spawning, larval rearing, and juvenile cultivation, all tailored to maximize reproductive success and survival rates. Molluscs, particularly bivalves such as oysters, clams, mussels, and scallops, play a vital role in global aquaculture. Their cultivation is expanding rapidly due to their ecological services, including water filtration and habitat formation, alongside their high nutritional value and economic returns. Hatchery-based production enhances seed availability and reliability, addressing the variability of natural seed sources and supporting the expansion of commercial farming. Mollusc hatcheries are specialized facilities engineered to regulate and maintain optimal conditions for reproduction, larval development, and seed production. These operations are built upon scientific principles encompassing infrastructure design, water quality management, breeding protocols, and biosecurity measures. Induced spawning techniques, often triggered through temperature shocks or chemical cues, initiate gamete release under controlled settings. Larval rearing involves maintaining precise environmental parameters— temperature, salinity, and food availability—to support the delicate early developmental stages. Following metamorphosis, juveniles are transferred to nursery systems where they continue to grow until they are ready for transfer to grow-out sites. A distinguishing anatomical feature of bivalves is their two-valved shell, which may be symmetrical or asymmetrical and may fully or partially enclose the soft body. These shells are primarily composed of calcium carbonate and comprise three layers: the nacreous inner layer, the prismatic middle layer, and the outer

The silkworm chawki rearing is a vital stage in rearing as it has major influence on cocoon production.  Temperature, humidity and leaf quality are the three key important factors influencing chawki rearing.  Hence, maintaining these conditions at every step is very important and calls for provision of separate chamber. Any alteration in these factors will influence during later ages of silkworm rearing leading to crop losses.  Taking these factors into consideration the Government of India promoted the establishment Chawki Rearing Centres (CRCs) in private sector also.  These CRCs brush the silkworm eggs at one point under controlled conditions and distribute the worms to the needy farmers.
 
In recent years, bivoltine hybrids are becoming more popular in India and particularly in Karnataka.  This is due to the efforts of the Central Silk Board, Karnataka State Department of Sericulture and Japanese International Co-operation Agency.  These Bivoltines have high cocoon shell ratio (24 to 25%), better quality, fetches high cocoon price, better returns, high rendita (5.1 to 6.1) and raw silk percentage (20 to 22%) with filament length of 11502 to 12200 meters.  The farmers could achieve up to 70kgs cocoon yield per 100 Disease Free Layings (DFLs) and quality silk of 2A to 4A grade. 

Anthracnose
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Pathogen attacks all aerial parts of plants and at any stage of their growth.
• Symptoms are circular, black, sunken spots with dark center and bright red orange margins on leaves and pods.
• In severe infections, the affected parts wither off.
• Seedlings get blighted due to infection soon after seed germination.
• Infected pods have discolored seeds (Fig.3).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota
Sub- division : Deuteromycotina

Black caraway (Bunium persicum Boiss. Fedtsch ) commonly known as kala zeera is a low volume,  high value, under-exploited and  non-perishable crop that finds place  in cold arid  North -Western Himalayan regions of Indian sub-continent. Its fruits are expensive spice and are used in indigenous system of medicine for curing various ailments and disorders. The proper information on botanical identity of the species, its description and distribution, active ingredients, standardized agro-techniques, processing and value addition and marketing potentials, etc. are very scanty. An attempt has been made to gather information on various aspects of kala zeera to promote its cultivation in the cold arid regions of the Himalayan states and its role in improving the socio-economic conditions of the people by cultivating the cash crop.

Introduction

Biomass is a major source of energy in developing countries, particularly in India. Biomass as a fuel used in residential sector of India is a major component of total energy use in India. Type of fuels used in residential sector in India varies with locations and availability of the local fuels and also by way of cooking food in the open fires or in the rural cook stoves (Earthen Chulhas). The majority of the household in the rural sector of the developing countries burns the biomass fuel under traditional open stoves or in advanced closed cook stove (Fullerton et al., 2008). Biomass fuel includes any material of plant or animal origin, which is deliberately burnt by the human being. Approximately, 2 billion people in the developing world use the biomass fuel as the major source of domestic energy (Balakrishnan et al., 2002). Out of residential fuels, 80-90% of the energy requirement in rural India are met with the use of biomass in the form of fuel wood, dung cakes, charcoal and agricultural residue (TEDDY, 2007). Burning of biomass from all these sources is well known to be associated with the emission of smoke/plumes consisting of particulate and gaseous species as these are not energy efficient processes and thus the fuels are not burnt completely. The species emitted and their concentrations depend on the nature of the source of biomass and other factors including the physical parameters associated with the consumption of the biomass. The fate of the initial fire emissions depends strongly on both their composition and the regional state of the atmosphere. Once airborne, the particles begin to grow slightly in size as they age through condensation and coagulation. Despite their high concentrations and widespread distribution in the atmosphere, the sources remain poorly characterized. Biomass burning has drawn global concerns in the past decades for its effects on visibility, human health and global climate by emitting particulate matter (PM) and other gaseous pollutants (Andreae et al., 2005). Biomass burning emits significant global source of PM emissions to the troposphere which leads to deleterious impact on the earth’s atmosphere. It has an impact on the chemical composition of the atmosphere, the formation of photo oxidants and thus on air quality on a regional scale and climate change (Andreae et al., 2005). They also have harmful impact on human health, natural environment and ecological system (Cheng et al., 2000). The various impacts of these emissions have been well studied by Cheng et al. (2000) and Bardouki et al. (2003). Interest in this topic grew when several studies suggested that biomass burning emissions could rival fossil fuel emissions (Crutzen and Andreae, 1990). Biomass burning has received considerable interest (Bowman et al., 2009).

Introduction

Black cotton soils are formed by the solidification of molten magma; it covers a large area of the Deccan plateau. The depth of this soil is very high in the lower part of the Krishna – Godavari basin. The clay fraction is very high which is responsible for the heavy waterlogging in the area of heavy rainfall and become more vulnerable to soil erosion. The fine fraction of soil not allows draining out through the soil profile and at the same time the rate of evaporation is low. During summer soils suffer from moisture stress and it becomes very hard but at the same time during the rainy season moisture content very high. this imposes severe constraints on conventional agriculture use as a result most of the land remains fallow and subjected to soil erosion due to heavy rain. The nutrient status of the soil is quite good in Vertisol but these constraints limit crop production. To manage black cotton soil for crop production it is advisable to use animal-powered devices for surface soil drainage, Counter cultivation, adoption of a new cropping system will be helpful for better crop production.

Black gram (Vigna mungo, L. Hepper, 2 n = 2 x = 22, family Leguminosae/ Fabaceae, essentially self-pollinated) has a global production of 3.2 million tons where India is the largest producer accounting for more than 70% of the global production followed by Myanmar and Thailand. Indian black gram area, production and productivity in 2010-11 were 3.25 million ha, 1.76 million tons and 522 kg/ha. The corresponding figures for 2015-16 were 3.62 million ha, 1.95 million tons and 537 kg/ha and the corresponding figures for 2016- 17 were 4.48 million ha, 2.83 million tons and 632 kg/ha. For 2017-18 (IV advance estimate), the figures were 5.44 million ha, 3.56 million tons and 655 kg/ha (Directorate of Pulses Development, 2018). These figures show a steady rise in black gram area, production and productivity over the years. This is the third important pulse crop in India after gram and pigeonpea. The three states namely, Madhya Pradesh, UP and Andhra Pradesh alone account for about 50% of the black gram area and production in India.

19.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Eurasia and introduced in America, Australia and South Africa.

• Grown throughout dry parts of India

19.2. Economic importance

• Whole plant - Useful for rheumatalgia, swellings, cough, asthma, bronchitis, wounds, ulcers, flatulence, dyspepsia, hepatomegaly, otalgia, hiccough, opthalmopathy, vomiting

• Used in cardiopathy, leprosy, skin diseases, fever, splenomegaly, emollient

• As an antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, expectorant, anodyne, vulnerary, digestive, laxative, diuretic, cardiotonic, depurative, diaphoretic, febrifuge, rejuvenating, sedative, alterant and tonic.

19.3. Climate

• Well in tropical and subtropical climate

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Black pepper popularly known as ‘King of spices’ or ‘Black gold’ is one of the important and earliest known spices produced and exported from India. Its original home is the dense evergreen forests of Western Ghats in south India. The flavour and fragrance of this oriental spice had a magic spell in human civilization and culture since very ancient days. Expeditions in search of pepper led to the discovery of new trade routes.

English name : Black pepper
Botanical name : Piper nigrum L.
Family : Piperaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 52
Centre of origin : Western Ghats, India
Black of the commerce is the dried mature fruit of the perennial climbing vine of Piper nigrum L. It is one of the oldest and most significant spices in the world. Black pepper refers to the whole dried fruit, which is still unripe, while white pepper is made from the fruit after the mesocarp has been removed. Among all spice crops, pepper holds the highest share in foreign exchange, earning it the title of the “King of Spices.” An analysis of various types of black pepper from Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Assam revealed the following ranges of values: moisture content (8.7-14.1%), total nitrogen (1.55-2.60%), nitrogen in non-volatile ether extract (2.70-4.22%), volatile ether extract (3.0-4.2%), non-volatile ether extract (3.9-11.5%), alcohol extract (4.4-12.0%), starch (28-49%), crude fibre (8.7- 18.0%), crude piperine (2.8-9%), piperine (spectrophotometrically) (1.7- 7.4%), total ash (3.9-5.7%), and acid-insoluble ash (0.03-0.55%). Starch is the principal constituent of pepper, making up 34.8% of black pepper, 56.5% of white pepper, and 63.2% of decorticated white pepper. Pepper starch consists of small, polygonal granules similar to rice but much smaller. The alkaloid piperine (melting point: 29-30°C) is the primary compound responsible for black pepper’s characteristic biting taste. Other pungent alkaloids present in smaller quantities include chavicine, piperidine, and piperetine. 

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), famous as “Black Gold” and also known the “King of Spices” is the most important agricultural commodities of commerce and trade in India. It is the most important, most popular and most widely used spice in the World. Of the total spices traded internationally, black pepper accounts for 34 per cent. South West India is the traditional home of this important spice, particularly the Malabar Coast. Black pepper is also grown in tropical zones such as the Asia Pacific Region, mainly India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, China, Vietnam and Cambodia. Outside the Asia Pacific region, the crop is distributed in Brazil, Mexico, Guatemala, etc., totaling about 26 countries. It is grown successfully between 20°N and 20°S latitude and from mean sea level to 1500 meters above sea level. World’s black pepper production varies in the range of 2.7 to 3.35 tonnes annually. The major production share is contributed by Vietnam with an annual production of 80,000 tonnes. About 85 per cent of the World trade of pepper is determined by the largest pepper producing countries in the International Pepper Community (IPC). World export fluctuates around 1.5–2.5 lakhs tonnes per annum. Global black pepper supply has shown a drastic increase over last ten years except in 2008–09. Vietnam’s sudden increase in production has resulted in the massive global out put of 3–3.5 lakhs metric tonnes from 1.9–2.0 lakhs metric tonnes in late nineties. 

Synonyms : Black leg, quarter ill
This is an acute infectious but non contagious disease of cattle, goat, sheep, swine and deer  caused by Cl. chauvoei characterized by development of focal gangrenous and emphysematous myositis. This gives rise to crepitation and serosanguinous swelling in heavy muscles especially in gluteal muscles and associated with severe toxaemia and high mortality.

Some species of turmeric have been documented from China, Australia, and the South Pacific, despite the fact that turmeric has been farmed all throughout the tropics. Turmeric along with the 110 species is found growing in Tropical Asia, with India, Myanmar, and Thailand having the most diversity. Black turmeric (Curcuma caesia), along with Curcuma aromatica, Curcuma amada, Curcuma aeruginosa, Curcuma longa, and Curcuma zanthorrizha, is one of the economically important species native to India. Curcuma caesia (black turmeric/ black zedoary) is a critically endangered perennial herb in the Zingiberaceae family native to India. Traditional healers employ the Curcuma genus to treat a variety of diseases in ethno medical traditions, but Curcuma caesia Roxb. is a relatively unknown and unexplored medication. In the Indian subcontinent, black turmeric is frequently used as a spice, food preservative, and colouring ingredient. Black turmeric is the most recent spice to be chemically studied, with a few papers describing 100 or more secondary metabolites from this plant, and it will continue to be a source of new bioactive chemicals.

Distribution

Black turmeric is a native of Northeastern and Central India, where it has long been used in traditional rituals and medicinal treatments. Within an altitudinal range of 200–1000 m, the species is found in moist deciduous woods, primarily in Bengal, North East, and Central India. It develops as a woodland ground cover in subtropical to temperate climates.

I. FILL UPS

1. Blackgram is commonly known as _____.
2. Adopted spacing for blackgram is _____.
3. Seed rate for blackgram is _____.
4. Moisture content must be reduced to _____ for short term storage of blackgram seeds
5. Isolation distance for blackgram seed crop is _____.

Bleaching is essentially whitening or decolourizing. It is an important step in the processing of dry plants. It involves chemical processes that can change the ability of colour bodies to absorb light by changing their degree of saturation (Robson, 1967). This chemical action removes the discolouration occurring during the dehydration phase of preservation of plants. It allows the effective use of dyes for colouring. Bleaching agent is a material that lightens or whitens a substrate through chemical action. To reduce the processing costs, multistage bleaching is suggested. In this method, both oxidative and reductive bleaching chemicals are used.

Key Points

• Sudden severe bleeding or hemorrhage can cause hemorrhagic shock and death.

• Chronic and or occult bleeding or hemorrhage can cause anemia and even death.

• Common causes of bleeding include trauma, surgical incisions, extreme temperatures, vitamin K deficiency, medicines, and toxins.

Introduction

Bleeding is the extravasation (arterial, venous, or capillary) of blood caused by trauma or a surgical incision.

Introduction

Education as a process of development deals with three majors teaching, training and instruction. Its objective being to help students to achieve their highest potential and individual development which they are capable. Education needs to be tailored meaning to ensure that the information is relevant. Attitude, Knowledge and Skill “each one of them, with its inner components, prepares students to acquire and obtain different characters as means to produce a professional” Yang et al. (2015). Education is a field which is continuously growing from since long and is still growing through a phase of continuous change. To this fast changing world of higher education we need to adapt and adopt the changing environment to meet the circumstances posed by ICT. The educationists and students in particular have witnessed a tremendous change due to the changes brought in by ICT. ICT is what regarded as the efficient management of information, fostering the development of 21st century. The learner in today’s world is so much driven by technology that only traditional method of teaching does not bring satisfaction. Today, ICT is nothing but a blend of both which is yielding and having a good impact on the education scenario. ICT applications are undoubtedly improving the education system in all aspects. Escueta et al. (2017) the educational landscape has been indelibly altered over the past two decades by technological innovation.

The concept of gender, distinct from biological sex, serves as a lens through which societies organize individuals and define roles, expectations, and relationships. Gender is not merely a matter of identity but an intersectional construct shaped by cultural, social, economic, and political influences. It reflects how different societies understand and express masculinity, femininity, and other gender identities, often dictating the power dynamics, opportunities, and constraints placed on individuals.

The understanding of gender has evolved significantly over time. Initially, it was viewed as a binary construct aligned strictly with biological sex; however, modern perspectives recognize gender as a fluid and dynamic concept, shaped by individual experiences, social interactions, and institutional norms. This evolution has brought about greater recognition of diverse gender identities, challenging traditional binaries and expanding the conversation to include non-binary, transgender, and gender non-conforming identities.

At the heart of gender are the societal structures that enforce roles and expectations. These structures differ across cultures and historical periods but commonly emphasize the division of labor, power, and resources between men and women. Gender not only influences individual identity but also informs how societies function, shaping everything from economic participation to political representation.

1.1 Introduction

Gender permeates every facet of society, influencing power dynamics, access to resources, and opportunities. Understanding gender requires not only defining its conceptual framework but also acknowledging how these concepts manifest in everyday life, often creating deep divisions. Gender divides whether in education, employment, health, or political participation are enduring realities that reflect the unequal distribution of opportunities and rights between men and women, as well as between those who identify beyond the binary. These divides are more than social phenomena; they have concrete economic, political, and developmental impacts. Recognizing the persistent gaps in access and outcomes between genders has led to the development of gender-sensitive policies, such as gender budgeting. Gender budgeting is a critical tool for addressing these divides by ensuring that public resources are allocated equitably to benefit all genders. By focusing on the differential impacts of policies and budgets on women, men, and gender minorities, governments and organizations can work toward creating more inclusive and fair societies.

This chapter will introduce key gender-related concepts that form the foundation for understanding how gender influences social, economic, and political life. It will explore the roots and ramifications of gender divides across various sectors and explain how gender budgeting is employed as a strategic approach to reduce these disparities. Through this exploration, we will highlight the importance of integrating gender perspectives into policy and resource distribution to foster equity and social justice.

1.1 Introduction

Gender mainstreaming, a concept that emerged from international frameworks and global development agendas, is a strategy aimed at achieving gender equality by integrating gender perspectivesinto allstages of policy-making and organizational practices. Originating from the recommendations of the 1985 Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi and formally endorsed at the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, gender mainstreaming has evolved into a fundamental approach within international development efforts. It was adopted as a methodology by ECOSOC in 1997, marking a significant commitment across the United Nations system to advance gender equality goals comprehensively.

In essence, gender mainstreaming is not merely about inclusivity; it represents a proactive stance towards challenging and reshaping societal structures and ideologies that perpetuate gender disparities.

1.1 Introduction

The state of Uttarakhand was formed in November 2000. At the state level, it is the Department of Women’s Empowerment and Child Development that has overall responsibility for formulating and implementing schemes relating to Women’s Empowerment. As the nodal agency, the responsibility for preparing the Women’s Policy was given by the Government of Uttarakhand to Department of Women’s Empowerment and Child Development. Presently the Government of Uttarakhand is running various schemes/programmes through the different departments of the Government to bring about women’s development and their empowerment. For lack of an overarching policy that would have provided a common understanding and a unified vision, each department has defined and operationalized empowerment through its own prism and from its own perspective and understanding. In the case of some departments, the stated goal is not to bring about women’s empowerment, but rather, the emphasis is on bringing about their overall efficiency and economic development.

Abstract
The advent of blockchain technology is instigating a transformative shift across various industries, with the Indian agricultural sector being no exception to this phenomenon. This chapter examines the function of
blockchain technology within the realms of agricultural branding and market intelligence in India, elucidating its contributions to the enhancement of transparency, traceability, and trust throughout agricultural value chains. The implementation of an immutable ledger for transactions and supply chain data through blockchain technology enhances branding strategies while facilitating data-driven decision-making within the agricultural markets of India. This chapter further examines the practical implementations, obstacles, and prospective trajectories concerning the adoption of blockchain technology within the agricultural sector of India.

The advent of blockchain technology is instigating a transformative shift across various industries, with the Indian agricultural sector being no exception to this phenomenon. This chapter examines the function of blockchain technology within the realms of agricultural branding and market intelligence in India, elucidating its contributions to the enhancement of transparency, traceability, and trust throughout agricultural value chains. The implementation of an immutable ledger for transactions and supply chain data through blockchain technology enhances branding strategies while facilitating data-driven decision-making within the agricultural markets of India. This chapter further examines the practical implementations, obstacles, and prospective trajectories concerning the adoption of blockchain technology within the agricultural sector of India.

With the invention of bitcoin in 2008, the world was exposed to a new technology paradigm called blockchain. Blockchain was conceptualized by an unknown person named as Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008. The identity of Satoshi Nakamoto is still not known. Nakamoto proposed the design of blockchain which uses digital signature and timestamps to enable secure and trusted online transaction without the need of any trusted regulatory or third party.

HAEMOPROTEUS

Host

Infection with Haemoproteus species is host specific.

H. meleagridis – domestic poultry and pet birds

H. olumbae in pigeons

H. nettionis in waterfowl.

With few species-specific differences in analyte ranges, clinical chemistry instruments originally developed for human and veterinary use are readily adapted for use in fish specimens. However, the development of hematological methods for fish continues to face challenges similar to those encountered during the early applications of complete blood count (CBC) techniques in birds and reptiles. Like their non-mammalian terrestrial counterparts, fish possess nucleated erythrocytes, and several leukocytes—such as thrombocytes, monocytes, lymphocytes, and basophils—exhibit similar morphology when stained with Romanowsky-type stains.
Blood collection and hematological testing are essential techniques in fish pathogen detection and overall health monitoring within India’s aquaculture systems. These approaches help assess physiological responses to infectious agents, environmental stress, and farming practices. Given the wide variety of cultured species—from carps in West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh to catfish in Tamil Nadu and ornamental fish in Kerala—blood-based diagnostics serve as a non-lethal, rapid, and informative method for health evaluation.
Blood is commonly drawn from the caudal vein or heart using sterile syringes, with or without anticoagulants such as EDTA, depending on the intended analysis. In field conditions, particularly in rural hatcheries and pond systems, affordable options like glass capillaries or insulin syringes are frequently employed. For small-sized species such as Danio or ornamental fish, heparinized capillary tubes are used to reduce clotting during blood collection. Fish are typically anaesthetized using clove oil or MS-222—both widely accessible in Indian laboratories—to minimize stress during handling.

Background
Blood collection from cows and other animals is a routine procedure often performed for diagnostic, research, or health-monitoring purposes. Diagnostic testing, such as hematology, biochemistry, hormone assay, infectious disease testing, and animal pregnancy diagnosis, can be done using blood. Blood samples are required for genetic testing (DNA fingerprinting or parentage determination), pharmacokinetic studies, and immunological studies. Another use of blood collection is monitoring animal health.
It is essential to consider that proper techniques of blood sample collection should be followed. Avoid introducing infection to the animal during blood collection. Remember the animal welfare to minimize distress and discomfort to the animal during blood collection.
Materials Required
• Sterile syringe or vacutainer (usually 16-18 G needle)
• Blood collection tubes (BD Science K2 EDTA Vacutainer(R) PLUS 6 mL) for whole blood, serum tubes for serum collection, or other specific tubes depending on the test (Figure 1).
• Antiseptic solution (e.g., alcohol or iodine)
• Restraint (head gate or halter)
• Gloves

Amounts up to 5 ml of blood can be safely drawn from the auricular marginal vein, using a 23- to 25-gauge needle (or) a 23-gauge butterfly attached to a syringe or tube. The jugular vein should be avoided for blood collection if the rabbit suffers from a respiratory problem or shows respiratory distress. It may become cyanotic during the procedure. Alternate sites for blood collection are the cephalic and the lateral saphenous veins. (Their locations are the same as in dogs and cats. These veins are fragile, and a hematoma is easily formed).

Accurately in the clinical diagnosis of a disease in experimental animals frequently depends on the result of laboratory examination of blood specimen from the diseased animals. A prerequisite for good experiment result is the proper collection and handling of the blood samples. If properly collected samples can not be sent to the laboratory quickly. It must be preserved or stored in such a manner that the necessary tests may be conducted. The technician/researchers

Going to collect the blood from a laboratory animal should be aware of the purpose of blood collection, the sites of blood collection, the technique of blood collection, the Use of various anti coagulants, the techniques of blood examination.

Blood Examination of Animal may be Necessary

The glucose is utilized in the body for immediate energy requirements. The utilization of glucose depends on the integrated activity of digestive system metabolism and endocrine system of the body. Glucose tolerance is referred as the capacity of animal to regulate elevated blood glucose on ingestion or infusion, gradually. The level of glucose that can be tolerated by an animal without producing glucosurea is indicative of tolerance. Glucose load challenges the pancreas to release insulin which in turn regulates blood glucose level. If the insulin release is adequate and target cells have healthy receptors, elevated blood glucose level return to base value within 2 hours and glucose does not appear in urine. An increased glucose tolerance means limited rise and rapid fall in blood glucose in short span than the normal rate of utilization.

Blood Cholesterol

(Colorimetric Method of Lieberman, 1885: Burchard 1889 Modified by Watson, 1960).

Introduction

According to Liebermann-Burchard reaction, treatment of chloesterol with acetic anhydride and concentrated sulphuric acid in a water-free environment, polymerized unsaturated hydrocarbon with an intense blue-green colour are produced. The values for cholesterol esters may be calculated by deducting free cholesterol from total cholesterol.

We must know our family, its members and their relationships. Let us first look at basic relationships which often figure in the questions. If you are conversant with the given items in the table below, half of your battle is already won. It is not required to mug-up these names, but instead make a clear picture in your mind as you go through each one of them. This will go a long way in retaining the details of these given shortcut tricks for solving Blood relations problems for logical and analytical reasoning. Read the following thoroughly before moving on

Blood transfusion is an important supportive therapy for animals with severe anaemia, blood loss and other conditions requiring restoration of circulating blood components. This chapter presents practical principles of blood transfusion, including blood groups, donor selection, blood collection, compatibility testing and administration. Cross-matching is important for reducing the risk of transfusion reactions. The chapter also discusses monitoring of patients during transfusion and recognition of common clinical signs associated with transfusion reactions. Proper collection, storage, handling and administration of blood products are essential for safe and effective therapy. The practical procedures help veterinary students understand transfusion medicine and patient management.

Blood transfusion is one of the crucial life-saving procedures in veterinary medicine undertaken to increase red cell mass, volume replacement, replenishing coagulation factors, and protein replacement. The concept of blood transfusion was first introduced by Francis Potter in 1639. However, it was only in 1666 that Richard Lower reported the first successful direct transfusion from one dog to another. Blood is a biological drug and is not a definitive treatment, but it provides support until the disease is diagnosed or treatment is initiated. Indications Blood transfusion is indicated for the management of the following conditions: •     Anemia due to various diseases/disorders, like infection or acute/ chronic hemorrhage •     Bleeding disorders such as thrombocytopenia or coagulopathies •     Rodenticide toxicities

22.1 Introduction

The blood vascular system of fishes is modified to suit the aquatic mode of life. Fish contains the simplest single-circuit closed blood vascular system.

The structure of the heart in fish varies little. In fish, all of the chambers of the heart are essentially the same. The size and shape of the component chambers may differ. A large heart is found in extremely sluggish fishes with low oxygen requirements. The number and arrangement of valves in the conus arteriosus are the most distinguishing features in various fishes.

Blood is a first by-product of animal slaughter house. It accounts about 5-7 percent of animals live weight. It is highly nutritious material particularly rich in protein (17-18%) and essential nutrients. Blood is a rich source of amino acids like leucine, lysine, valine, phenylalanine, histidine etc. It is also rich in haem iron which is biologically most available form of iron. Protein efficiency ratio of plasma is 2.5 while 1.0 for globin. It contains about 80 percent water and responsible for effluent problems. It is a great source of pollution because BOD₅ of whole blood is 250000 mg/litre. It should be collected and processed as soon as possible because whole blood clots easily and is capable to clogs the drainage system, grease traps and septic tank of meat plant or abattoir.

Whenever we get a cut, a red fluid comes out of the wound. This red fluid is called blood. Blood is very important for the body as is evident from the fact that the loss of blood from the body makes it weak and may even cause death. Physiologically the blood is a red tissue composed of cells suspended in a pale yellow fluid, plasma. Unicellular organisms that live in immediate contact with the external environment obtain nutrients directly from that environment and eliminate unused or unwanted materials. Blood and lymph are important connecting fluids among the diverse anatomical structures of the mammalian organisms. Thus blood is the liquid vehicle by which the major organic nutrients are transported from the intestine where they are absorbed, to the liver where they are processed and thence to other organs. Similarly blood is the liquid vehicle for the transport of waste materials from various organs to the kidney and gastrointestinal tract from where they are eliminated. Thus the blood is the major transport carrier of nutrients, metabolites, oxygen, hormones, waste products etc. inside the body. Blood is an important medium to maintain homeostasis of various electrolytes in the body. Besides blood provides the army against any external attack on the body by harmful microorganisms. This army is in the form of cells, called white blood or corpuscles or leucocytes.

In a normal adult human being, about 5 to 6 litre of blood is present which is about 8 percent of the body weight. In domestic animals generally 5 to 8 per cent of the body weight is blood (say 30-40 litre in a cow). The blood is composed of two parts, the cells and the fluid part or plasma. The cellular constituents of blood include erythrocytes or red blood corpuscles, leucocytes or white blood corpuscles and thrombocytes or platelets. The cellular constituents of blood varies with the species as well as with the age and physiological stage of the animal.

The extracellular constituents or plasma is composed of water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids, glucose, enzymes and hormones etc. The blood undergoes coagulation on exposure to air leaving clear watery fluid, called serum. The serum is nothing but plasma minus fibrinogen and other clotting factors. The serum is a clear yellowish fluid. The yellow colour is due to the presence of small quantities of bilirubin, a bile pigment and of carotenoids. The blood serum of cattle is yellow due to presence of more of carotenoids whereas that of buffalo is white due to the absence of carotenoids. The blood clot consists of a network of fibrous strands of fibrin in which are enmeshed the cellular elements of the blood. Blood clotting is a protective mechanism against excessive loss of blood from the body. The lymph also clots, although, somewhat more slowly than blood.

Blood is the fluid pumped by the heart that circulates throughout the body via the arteries, veins, and capillaries . Blood is a body fluid in animals and human beings that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. Hematology is the science or study of blood, blood-forming organs and blood diseases.

Blotting is the procedure through which nucleic acids or proteins are immobilized onto a solid support generally nylon or nitrocellulose membranes. Blotting of nucleic acid is the central technique for labeling and hybridization on membranes have formed the basis for a range of experimental techniques involving understanding of gene expression, organization, etc. More recently the identification of abnormal genes in genomic DNA has become increasingly important in clinical research and genetic counseling. We can identify inherited disease, infectious agent present in the sample by using blotting technique. It is also used to mapping restriction sites in single copy gene.

Southern Blotting
Introduction

Southern hybridization was named after Edward M. Southern who developed this procedure at Edinburgh University in the 1970s. To oversimplify, DNA molecules are transferred from an agarose gel onto a membrane. Southern blotting is designed to locate a particular sequence of DNA within a complex mixture. It is also called Southern blotting since the procedure for transfer of DNA from the gel to the nitrocellulose filter resembles blotting. In Southern hybridization, a sample of DNA containing fragments of different sizes is subjected to electrophoresis using either polyacrylamide or agarose gel.

1. Introduction

With the advancement of science and technology, new technologies have been developed to advance molecular work to a great extent. Thousands of DNA molecules can be simultaneously sequenced at one time using next-generation sequencing (NGS). Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies act as revolutionary tools for various implementations and can produce hundreds of gigabases of sequence data within a single experiment. A wide variety of modern sequencing technologies go by the name of "high-throughput sequencing." In recent years, this technology has advanced as a de facto tool for the study of genomics and epigenomics. Nucleotides can be located using this technique anywhere in the genome or in groups of specific DNA or RNA regions. An NGS plot is a useful tool for bridging the gap between enormous datasets and genomic information in this era of massive sequencing data. Resequencing of genomic DNA will undoubtedly be the primary application of NGS in clinical settings. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) offers an intricate representation of single nucleotide variations (SNV), insertions and deletions (indels), complex structural alterations, and changes in copy number, all of which are attainable through a single analysis. Extensive genetic information can be obtained and used after complete genome sequencing, which reveals a large amount of genetic data. However, a significant portion contains either novel information or data whose clinical significance has not yet been established. WGS is the most comprehensive genetic analysis of an individual or cancer genome.

BGA belong to a class of prokaryotic photosynthetic microorganisms also known, as cyanobacteria are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen aerobically. Most abundantly found in tropical zone, never form fibrous growth and are enveloped by a sheath. The trophic independence of algae for C and N makes them responsible for a natural fertility buildup of rice field soils. The nitrogen fixing ability of BGA was first recognized by Frank and Prantil in 1889. The occurrence of the BGA in the rice field was reported by FE Fritsch in 1907.

Rice is grown in about 40 million hectares of land in India and nitrogen requirement for the crop is 60 lakh tonnes based on the present levels of consumption. Rice production has to be sustained and increased to provide staple diet to our increasing population. Blue green algae is a potentional biofertilizer in rice because of their capacity to meet both carbon and nitrogen requirement naturally from the air. They are microscopic algae which are collectively called phytoplankton produce basic organic matter forming the first link in food chain and alongwith replenish the oxygen content of atmosphere. Algae contain proteins, Vitamins, iodine, bromine and substances of antibiotic and stimulatory nature. The soil algae are divided into chlorophyta (green algae) cynophyta (blue green) bacillariophyta (diatoms) and xanthophyta (yellow-greens).

De (1939) suggested that fertility of rice fields is maintained due to the growth of blue-green algae. Different types of blue-green algae have been reported to colonize the rice fields. The cells such as heterocysts in Anabaena, Nostoc, Tolypothrix etc. which have capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen under aerobic condition and unicellular and non- hetercoystous forms also fix atmospheric nitrogen under microaerophilic conditions.

Synonyms : Catarrhal fever, Sore mouth, Epizootic catarrh, Sore muzzle, Pseudo foot and mouth disease, Malarial catarrhal fever.

It is an infectious, noncontagious arthropod borne viral disease of domestic and wild ruminants namely sheep, goat , cattle, camels, llamas, deer and antelopes. This is predominantly a disease of sheep but occasionally cattle and  goats are subclinically affected. The disease is characterized by high fever, catarrhal stomatitis, rhinitis, enteritis and lameness due to inflammation of the coronary bands and sensitive laminae of the feet. There are at least  25 serotypes of bluetongue virus worldwide within the BTV serogroup. Genetic variability occurs within a group due to genetic drift of individual gene segments and genetic reassortment when ruminants or other vectors are infected with more than one strain.

Abstract

Blumea lacera (Burm f.) DC. belonging to family Asteraceae is an annual herb with a strong odour. This herb is distributed throughout the plains of North-west India upto an elevation of 2,900 m and is also reported from Tropical Africa, South East Asia, Bangladesh, Nepal, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. Blumea lacera is a plant with camphor-like odour, and is highly variable, grows in grassland, field, roadside and forest edge. Traditionally, it is used internally and externally as a hemostatic and anti-inflammatory agent. The juice of leaves along with black pepper (Piper nigrum) is given to cure bleeding piles. This herb is also offered as anthelmintic (especially for threadworm). Leaves and roots are used as astringent, diuretic and febrifuge and even in cuts and wounds. Bruises and ulcers can also be treated by applying fresh juice or extract. For treating piles (Hemorrhoids), the leaves of B. lacera has been used in ethnomedicinal practices.The phytoconstituents present in leaves are mainly terpenoids, glycosides, volatile oils, some glycoalkaloids and many more yet to be determined. B. lacera has been used as an ingredient in many pharmaceutical preparations. The chapter gives a brief idea about the ethnomedicinal usage, phytochemical profile, pharmacological usage and the future perspective of B. lacera. and would help the researchers for better understanding of this plant as well as developing plant derived molecules in drug discovery process.

In most of the examinations, the questions related to boat and stream are asked. These questions are seemed to be very difficult but are very ticklish and easy to solve. The students need to concentrate on flow of stream upward and down ward. If the boat is moving towards the flow (downstream), the speed of boat and stream will be added and if the boat is moving towards opposite of stream flow (upstream), the distance covered by the baot will be equal to boat speed minus strean speed. Few important tips are given below to solve such type of questions.

Downstream and Upstream Motion

Downstream motion of a boat is its motion in the same direction as the flow of the river. Upstream motion is exactly the opposite. There are two parameters in these problems.

1. INTRODUCTION

Water is the source that upholds every part of life on earth and is a key element of sustainable development. It is essential to the survival of healthy and safe lives of mankind. Ecosystems are inevitably linked with water. Lack of access to ample and safe drinking water is a serious setback among human population. Noxious substances from industries when enter into lakes, streams, rivers, oceans, and other water bodies, they get dissolved or lie suspended in water or get deposited on the bed. This results in the pollution of water whereby the quality of the water deteriorates, affecting aquatic ecosystems.

The strain of escalating population, growth of industries, urbanization, energy intensive life style, loss of forest cover, lack of environmental awareness and implementation of environmental rules and regulations, environment improvement plans, untreated effluent discharge from industries and municipalities, use of non-biodegradable pesticides/fungicides/herbicides/ insecticides, use of chemical fertilizers instead of organic manures, etc are basis of water pollution. The pollutants from industrial discharge and sewage, besides finding their way to surface water reservoirs and rivers are also percolating into ground to pollute ground water sources, threatening food security, access to safe drinking and bathing water and providing a major health and environmental management challenge. Contaminated water from inadequate waste water management provides one of the greatest health challenges restricting development and increasing poverty through costs to health care.

Water pollution is a sensitive problem all over the world. In the wake of increasing urbanization and industrialization, the pollution potential is gaining thrust day by day. Monitoring of waste water quality parameters is currently a subject of growing concern globally. Oxygen, although poorly soluble in water, is fundamental to aquatic life. In the absence of free dissolved oxygen, aquatic systems become inhabitable to most aquatic flora and fauna. Because the solubility of oxygen in water is so low, even little decrease in dissolved oxygen levels can compromise the health of natural water systems. Organic pollutants requiring oxygen for their decomposition exert a rapid and direct influence on the ecology of these environments. Therefore it is required to monitor the load of organic pollutants in the waste water.

This chapter examines the human body as an integrated working system governed by anatomical, physiological and biomechanical principles. It describes the roles of the musculoskeletal, nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory and metabolic systems in movement, strength, coordination and endurance. Muscle strength, joint range of motion, posture, flexibility and physical work capacity are discussed in relation to workplace demands. The chapter distinguishes static and dynamic work and explains how unsuitable loads or repetitive tasks contribute to fatigue and injury. Individual differences associated with age, fitness, body dimensions and physical capability are also considered. These concepts provide a scientific foundation for setting safe workloads and designing tasks around natural human limitations.

Body condition scoring (BCS), although subjective in nature, is the only practical method of evaluation of body energy stores in dairy cows. The method of body condition scoring, originally proposed by Edmonson et al. (1987) and recommended by the NRC (2001) is described here. This method uses a 5 point scale, with BCS of 1 being extremely thin and a score of 5 being extremely fat. This system includes a combination of both visual appraisal and manual palpation on 8 separate body locations. Figure 1 shows the suggested BCS chart based on these locations. The assessor can score the cows using this chart with a fair accuracy, without much previous experience of scoring the cows. The scoring method is recommended for HF and Holstein crossbred cows.

Loss of BCS is expected during early lactation when a cow is mobilizing body fat in support of energy needs for lactation. Typical observed changes in BCS range from 0.5 to 1.0 condition score units during the first 60 days postpartum. A 1-unit decrease in BCS for a cow weighing 650 kg at calving (BCS 4) would provide 698 MCal of ME.That amount of ME is sufficient to support 564 kg of 4 per cent fat corrected milk.