eChapters

Crabs are one of the fast-growing animals from phylum arthropod. Freshwater crabs is now becoming as an important shellfish in freshwater aquaculture production due to its delicacy and nutritional richness. Freshwater crabs are considered good for human consumption and economically important crustacean in many developing countries such as India, China, Nigeria, Japan etc. Freshwater crabs are distributed in the tropical region of the world and they spend their entire lives in freshwater. In Indian territory Western ghats of Maharashtra and north east part of India are considerably more diverse in freshwater crab biodiversity. While only freshwater crab species Barytelphusa cunicularis is commonly observed all over India. In Maharashtra Kolhapur and Konkan region stands out for well-established crab market, driven by high freshwater crab consumption. Freshwater crab serve as good protein food, lipid and cheap carbohydrate source as well as valuable mineral source for human consumption particularly tribal and poor people. Freshwater crab aquaculture, like other types of aquaculture practices, offers a wide range of culture systems, extensive monoculture to intensive monoculture. In freshwater crab aquaculture crab farmers mainly prefers Barytelphusa cunicularis as a culture species.

Introduction

In the 21st century aquaculture has become one of the most important booming industries in the world. With just a mere contribution to the worlds fish production in 1960’s, and able to contribute to about nearly 50% in 2021, production from aquaculture has increased manifolds. Successful aquaculture relies on creating a suitable environment for growth of aquatic animals. Water quality has to be the most important component for successful aquaculture production. Throughout the farming period, it is necessary to maintain good water quality to ensure high survival and fast growth of cultured species. There are numerous water quality parameters that can impact the well-being of fish and crustaceans, most of which are discussed in this chapter.

Factors like salinity and water temperature play a critical role in assessing the suitability of a location for the cultivation of specific species. Additionally, factors such as alkalinity, turbidity, phosphorus, and nitrogen hold significance due to their impact on plant productivity, which, in turn, affects aquaculture production. As the cultivation progresses, factors like dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and others gain importance, as they have the potential to create stress for the cultured animals. This chapter offers an overview of the presence and behavior of each of these variables in both natural water environments and aquaculture ponds.

With constantly increasing population and need for food security in the present era, an alternate option to safeguard the nutritional well-being of human civilisation is the utmost necessity of the hour. Aquaponics is a system which combines two food-producing systems such as a recirculatory aquaculture system and hydroponics in such a way, that, the waste of one system is utilised in the other system making it a perfect example of the eco friendly model. This system is a soil-less system which can be set up in small vicinity, providing higher outputs. The designs can be changed according to one’s needs, but the main components of the unit should be kept in mind. The main components consist of a fish tank, mechanical filter, biological filter, hydroponics unit along with sump. Although the hydroponics unit are of various kinds but broadly it can be classified into three main types-1. media bed, 2. Nutrient film technique and 3. Deep water culture. If there is a scarcity of land and water or if the quality of soil is poor, usage of aquaponics will be sustainable.

Introduction

Aquaponics is a combination of hydroponics with recirculatory aquaculture system(RAS) as a single production system. Water with fish wastes coming from the fish tank circulates and passes through the filters, the plant grows on beds and water recycles back to the fish tank in an aquaponic system. At f irst solid waste are removed by mechanic filtration followed by biofiltration for removal of dissolved wastes. Ammonia, which is poisonous to fish, is converted to nitrate, a more readily available fertiliser for plants, by bacteria in the biofilter. The plants absorb nitrate and other nutrients when the water passes through plant growing beds, filtering it prior to its arrival in the fish tank.

Sustainability Issues Regarding Major Marine Raw Materials Used in Aquaculture Diets

In 2018, more than 70% of the fish production is from fed aquaculture where f ish meals (FMs) and fish oils (FOs) are the main marine raw materials used in aquaculture diets or fish feed (Hua et al. 2019). They are derived or reduced products from the catch of small, pelagic, low-priced marine fish (forage fish) like Peruvian anchoveta that are rich in protein, micronutrient and lipid and are commonly termed as the ‘feed grade marine fishery’ (Bell and Waagbø, 2008; Bendiksen et al. 2011). The whole fish or any other f ish processing by-products are either cooked and then pressed to produce a liquid which on centrifuging produce the fish oil or are dried and crushed into powder-like material which is called as the fish meal (FAO, 2020). FM has the enough balance and concentration of essential amino acids and FO are rich in n-3 essential fatty acids especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). FM and FO are the main ingredients in aquaculture diets as they are relatively cheap, readily available, accepted and digested by the fish. The highest amount of these ingredients are often used in feeds for the high value aquatic organisms like carnivorous finfish (eg: Dicentrarchus labrax, Rachycendron canadum) (mostly marine), eels, salmonids, trouts, marine shrimps and freshwater crustaceans (see figure 1) etc. (Houlihan et al. 2001; Halver and Hardy, 2002; Miller et al. 2008) which are mainly imported by prosperous countries adding to good seafood trade value. All the intensive aquaculture production systems like recirculatory aquaculture systems, raceway aquaculture systems, aquaponics, cage culture, shrimp ponds etc are the major end users of the marine raw materials.

Introduction

In the face of a burgeoning global population, the imperative for robust advancements in food production, especially within the aquaculture industry, is more pressing than ever. The expansion of this industry necessitates a nuanced consideration of environmental, economic, and social factors underpinned by a commitment to sustainable development. However, the intensification of aquaculture, particularly in coastal regions, poses long-term environmental risks due to increased organic matter in water, demanding innovative solutions.

In recent decades, recirculating systems have emerged as a step toward sustainable aquaculture, offering an effective approach to control wastewater. High operating costs have hindered widespread adoption despite their potential, particularly in developing countries. Enter the need for a game-changing, cost effective, and environmentally friendly technology that resonates with farmers on a large scale. This is where the Biofloc system, or Biofloc technology (BFT), takes center stage. A beacon of cost-effectiveness, sustainability, and environmental friendliness, the BFT reduces water exchange to almost zero and slashes artificial feeding ratios. This revolutionary system enhances water quality and generates microbial protein for aquatic species, addressing critical challenges faced by the aquaculture industry.

Introduction

In aquaculture practises carried out in open environments (e.g. ponds, cages and pens), natural interaction between the culture and non-culture species, where the culture species are been fed by the non-culture species (predation) can occur, causing significant economic loses (Ross, 1988). As many as thirteen different predators are considered to cause loss or damage on salmon farms in Scotland alone among which cetaceans are notable. Seals, sea lions, aquatic birds, dolphins, whales, otters, crabs, starfish, snail, snakes, rats etc are generally considered as predators (SSGA, 1990; Miron et al., 2005), but cetacean species are not notable predators within salmon farms. It is necessary to develop an environment friendly and economically feasible methods or technologies to limit the useless natural interaction. Manual chasing away or removal of predators, usage of scarecrows, anti-predatory nets, covering nets and increasing the tension of nets are some methods used to prevent predations in different aquaculture scenarios.

Acoustic Deterrent Devices (ADDs) otherwise called as Acoustic Harassment Devices (AHDs) help to prevent predation as they produce strong underwater noises (sound waves) that disturb and scare off the predators (Gordon & Northridge, 2002). AHDs are comparatively higher energy output devices than ADDs that operate at a power level of above 185 dB re 1µPa @1m. However, as the hearing threshold of different predators differ, the term “ADDs” are generally used for those that are efficient to deter the predators irrespective of their operating power levels (Götz & Janik 2010). One of the first usage of different unspecified sounds (eg: killer whale’s recorded voice) to deter predators (seals) were during the 1970s and no sounds were then found efficient in a long-term run (Anderson and Hawkins, 1988). Later through the 1980s, the precursor of modern ADDs (175-210 dB re 1uPa @1m) that emit out sound waves of frequency range (8-17 kHz), which is similar to the predator’s (seals) most sensitive hearing range were developed (Mate et al.,1987).

In the earlier chapter the major soil vulnerability namely, water and wind erosion, depletion of soil organic matter, loss of plant nutrients, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, pollution and contamination, compaction, sealing, crusting, water-logging, aridity, landslide and abandoned mines were described. In this chapter two more parts, Importance of remote sensing (RS) and geographical information system (GIS) in soils and Watershed management are also included after seeing their importance in agriculture and soils. Restoration means that by various actions or processes to return something to its original owner, site, place, or condition. In this context our aim is to restore our mother soil from various vulnerabilities by different actions and processes to its natural and original condition up to the maximum possible extent. Management is defined as the scientific methods to attain targeted production through planning, organising, training and fixing targets for employees. Therefore, after the restoration, soils should be managed according to scientific method of action by scientifically selected and trained staff to perform the assigned responsibilities, effectively, efficiently and rapidly within stipulated period. On these guidelines restoration and management of vulnerabled soils is described here,

Vulnerability of Soils

Soil vulnerability, Soil degradation, soil vulnerability index

Water and wind erosion, depletion of soil organic matter, loss of plant nutrients, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, pollution and contamination, compaction, sealing, crusting, water-logging, aridity, lowering of water table, over grazing, deforestation, landslide, loss and change in soil biodiversity, Abandoned mines etc.

Soil vulnerability, Soil Degradation, Soil Vulnerability Index

The terms vulnerable and vulnerability are now bites of every one and used for everything. Vulnerable means to the possibility of attack or harm by any mean. Human beings are vulnerable to Covid-19, computers are vulnerable to virus, softwares are vulnerable to hackers and attackers to control system, environment is vulnerable to pollution. Vulnerabilities refer to the lack of ability to resist the effects of the aggressive environment. Soils are vulnerable to numerous threats like water and wind erosion, depletion of soil organic matter, loss of plant nutrients, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, pollution and contamination, compaction, sealing, crusting, water-logging, aridity, lowering of water table, over grazing, deforestation, landslide, loss and change in soil biodiversity etc. However, this book will describe some of the most pertinent vulnerabilities for soils.

Physical Properties of Soil

Physical properties of soil have many important roles in the crop production. The basic requirements for germination, seedling emergence and root development are adequate moisture and aeration, optimum temperature and absence of mechanical hindrance. After germination the further development of plant is also governed by physical conditions of soil. Soil texture, soil structure, soil density, soil consistence, soil water, soil air, soil temperature and soil colour are main physical properties of soils also affecting mechanical behaviour of soils. These are described here.

1. Soil Texture

The weathering divides larger particles of rocks and minerals in to the smaller ones. This process goes continuously. Thus, particles of different sizes ranging from large fragments of rocks to the very fine clay minerals are found in soil. However, for texture particles less than 2mm diameter is considered. The relative amount of these particles indicates the soil type also. Such as sandy soils contain more amounts of coarse particles i.e., sand and clayey soils are rich in fine particles. The rock and mineral particles having diameter less than 2.0 mm and come between specifies size are called as soil separates. International society of soil science (ISSS) and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) systems are Generally, followed to classify the soil separates. This classification is given in table 3.1.

Genesis of Soil

World’s geography is very widely diversified in relief showing various features like mountains and hills covered with snow and trees, glaciers, higher altitudes to plain to lowest valleys, forests to barren lands, fertile fields to waste lands, plateaus, deltas, swamps, lowlands, deserts etc. Temperature varies from arctic cold to scorching hot of equator, Rainfall from aridity to per humidity. All these situations and conditions under different sets of combinations generate and develop numerous types of soil from a single type of parent material. Therefore, many types of soils may develop at a smaller area.

Physical, chemical and biological weathering processes disintegrate and decompose various rocks and minerals to make asymmetrical soil parent material. This parent material is converted in to the soil profile by soil forming processes in the presence of soil forming factors. Soil genesis is defined as mode of formation of the soil from the parent material due to the action of soil forming factors and processes. Parent material, Factors of soil formation and Processes of soil formation, are three main part of soil genesis. These are described here:

1. Parent Material,

2. Classification of parent material,

3. Factors of soil formation,

4. Processes of soil formation,

5. Types of soil forming processes.

This chapter presents a birds’ eye view of the soil to develop the interest among the readers to know more about the fundamental concepts of soil.

Soil is a major determinant of terrestrial ecosystems and helps in the distribution of land flora and fauna. Soils are sources, transformers and stores of plant nutrients. Soils are the recycling places of plant and animal residues and wastes. Soils are also the screen and filter of pollutants in many ways, forms and degrees. Soils are the main link and recharger of hydrological cycle. Soils influence radiant heat exchange, temperature change and land surface reflection characteristics. Soils are important sources and sinks of biogeochemical cycles of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide. Soil is used in buildings, roads, brick kiln, naturopathy etc. Soils are good record of past climatic conditions and human activities, as they have some stable features originated from the interactions of climate, organisms, relief, parent material and time. Soil provides nutrients, water, air, heat and mechanical support to arable plants to produce the food, fodder, fibre, fuel and other plant products for human and animals. Mainly the soil is studied as a natural body and as a medium for plant growth.

What is book keeping?
Book keeping    is defined as;
1. The art of recording business transactions (pecuniary transactions) in a regulator and systematic manner.
2. Book keeping is the science and art of correctly recording in books of  accounts all those business transactions that result in the transfer of  money or money’s worth.
3. Book keeping is an art of recording day to day business transactions in a  set of books in a most systematic manner.
4. It is the process of analysing, classifying and recording transaction in accordance with pre-conceived plan.

Popularly the term management is used to refer to the group of managerial personnel of an enterprise. But the use of the term management in this sense is not correct, because the managerial personnel of an enterprise are usually designated as ‘managers’, ‘executives’ or administrators. Strictly speaking the term management refers to functional concept of management. Management refers to the sum total of all those functions or activities, which relate to the laying down of policies, plans and purposes, securing men, money, machinery needed for the achievement of the organisational objectives, putting all of them into operation and supervising and checking their performances in order to ensure the productive use of human and material resources for the maximum benefit or profit of the organisation, its employees and society in general.

Management is the sum total of five principal functions namely planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling. The functional areas of management include: a) Financial management, b) Personnel management, c) material management, d) Production management, e) marketing management and f) Office management.

A Eco/green job, also called a green-collar job is, according to the United Nations Environment Program “work in agricultural, manufacturing, research and development (R&D), administrative, and service activities that contribute(s) substantially to preserving or restoring environmental quality. Specifically, but not exclusively, this includes jobs that help to protect ecosystems and biodiversity; reduce energy, materials, and water consumption through high efficiency strategies; de-carbonize the economy; and minimize or altogether avoid generation of all forms of waste and pollution.

• Livestock play a vital role in rural economy. The combination of livestock and crop farming enables complementarity through productive utilisation of farm by-products and conservation of soil fertility, thus increasing rural farm income. Apart from providing food products like milk, egg and meat, livestock sector generates productive employment and valuable supplementary income to the vast majority of rural households, majority of whom are small and marginal farmers and landless labourers. Growing human population, increasing urbanisation, rising domestic incomes and changing lifestyles in the country have led to increasing demand for livestock products. Livestock like cattle (bulls and cows), buffaloes, sheep and goat are an integral part of India’s socio economic life. Animal husbandry is a part of agricultural economy. It directly supports about five per cent (20 million) of our population. India has two per cent of the geographical area and accounts for 15 per cent of livestock population (400 million). Cows and buffaloes comprise 56.5 per cent of world population.India ranks first, second, third and f ifth in buffalo, cattle and goat, sheep and poultry population in the world, respectively. (Economic Survey, 2008-09). The total livestock population of Tamil Nadu stood at 249.42 lakhs which comprises 4.94, 1.69, 9.10, 6.58 and17.7 per cent of the cattle, buffalos, sheep, goat and poultry population of the country (17th livestock census All India Summary Report, 2004).

Veterinary practice has gone through different phases with different components
• Phase I - Patient and Veterinarian: objective was only to treat illness of  the patient by veterinarian.
• Phase II – Patient - Veterinarian – Owner: Veterinarian was to take  recognition of owner and his/her needs.
• Phase III - Patient - Veterinarian – Owner – Law: Additional  responsibility on veterinarians to work as per the law (e.g. Registration  at VCI, Veterinary jurisprudence, Giving evidence at court of law, Health  certificates,    Death    certificate,    Cruelty    to    animals,    export   and    import    law,     euthanasia rules, etc.)
• Phase IV - Patient - Veterinarian – Owner – Law – Environment: Further  added responsibility to protect environment.  E.g. Biomedical waste  management. 

Retailing
Retailingincludes all activities involved in selling and providing goods and  services to ultimate consumers for personal or household use.
Classification of retail establishments
Based on ownership
• Independent retailer- one store ownership
• Chain retailer- many stores but owner is one
• Franchise – many owners of many stores

Procurement is acquisition of goods and services.
Procurement includes:
• Planning the acquisition
• Planning the contracting
• Requesting proposals 
• Selecting a vendor
• Administering the contract
• Closing the contract 

Planning the acquisition

It is based on goals of an enterprise acquisition varies – depends on what, when and where to produce. Based on these factors acquisition requirements are arrived.

• A project is a specific plan or design presented for consideration.

• It is a location specific activity with specific objectives, time and cost limitations and of non-repetitive nature.

• In banking, projects refers to an activity in which financial resources are expended to create capital assets that produce benefits over an extended period of time and which logically lends itself to planning, financing and implementing as a unit. Whereas, UNIDO defines a project as a proposal for an investment to create and or develop certain facilities in order to increase the production of goods/services in a community over a certain period of time.

• Projects are common term used by many to denote specific action plans.

• Project can be long term or short term, limited or comprehensive, single sector concentrated or multi sector concentrated.

Scheme

The needy livestock farmer visits the banks in the local area and enquire with the bank manager about the livestock projects and after having discussion with him, he visits the technical expert. A scheme can be prepared by a beneficiary after consulting local technical persons of State animal husbandry department, DRDA, SLPP, etc. livestock co-operative society/union/federation/commercial livestock farmers. If possible, the beneficiaries should also visit progressive livestock farmers and government/military/agricultural university livestock farm in the vicinity and discuss the profitability of livestock farming. A good practical training and experience in livestock farming will be highly desirable. The livestock co-operative societies established in the villages as a result of efforts by the Livestock Development Department of State Government and National Livestock Development Board would provide all supporting facilities particularly marketing of fluid milk. Nearness of livestock farm to such a society, veterinary aid centre, artificial insemination centre should be ensured. There is a good demand for milk, if the livestock farm is located near urban centre. The scheme should include information on land, livestock markets, availability of water, feeds, fodders, veterinary aid, breeding facilities, marketing aspects, training facilities, experience of the farmer and the type of assistance available from State Government, livestock society/union/federation.

Sources of agriculture/ Livestock finance
Finance for agriculture can be obtained from formal and informal sources Formal sources
Credit co-operatives
Commercial banks
Government
Regional Rural Banks
Informal sources
Money lender
Friends and relatives
Traders
Landlords
3 R’s OF CREDIT
To estimate the rationality of a loan, it is essential to know credit analysis.

Entrepreneurship theory has been evolving over the last 20 years and is ever growing. It is defined as a verifiable and logically coherent formulation of relationships, or underlying principles that either explain entrepreneurship, predict entrepreneurial activity or provide normative guidance (prescribing the right action in particular circumstance). Entreprenuership is interdisciplinary and contains various approaches that would increase one’s understanding of it. One way to examine these theories is with a ‘schools of thought’ approach that divides entrepreneurship into specific activities. These activities may be within a ‘macro view or a micro view’, but all address the conceptual nature of entrepreneurship.

Development of entrepreneurship

Creativity: Creativity and innovation are often used to mean the same thing, but each has a unique connotation. Creativity is the ability to bring something new into existence. Ideas usually evolve through a creative process whereby imaginative people bring them into existence, nurture them, and develop them successfully. The creative process for an idea contains five stages – germination, preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification.

National institute for entrepreneurship and small business

Development (NIESBUD)

The National Institute for Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development (NIESBUD) was established in 1983 by the Ministry of Industry (now Ministry of Small Scale Industries), Govt. of India, as an apex body for coordinating and overseeing the activities of various institutions/ agencies engaged in Entrepreneurship Development Particularly in the area of small industry and small business. The Institute which is registered as a society under Govt. of India Societies Act (XXI of 1860). The policy, direction and guidance to the Institute are provided by its Governing Council whose Chairman is the Minister of SSI.

Livestock farms

The veterinarians can start their own livestock farms with their vast technical knowledge; they can infuse scientific management techniques in their own farms. In the WTO (World Trade Organisation) era, GMP (Good Manufacturing Practices) and SPS (Sanitory and Phytosanitory) measures are of great importance for export of livestock commodities, as the emphasis in international trade is on quality and food safety. If veterinarians start their own scientifically managed livestock enterprise, they can exploit this opportunity. Further, practicing proven scientific management techniques will improve productivity of animals that would lead to overall quantitative and qualitative improvement of livestock sector.

Introduction

The process of setting up a business is preceded by the decision to choose entrepreneurship as a career and identification of promising business ideas upon a careful examination of the entrepreneurial opportunities. Generation of ideas is not enough; the business ideas must stand the scrutiny from techno economic, financial and legal perspectives. That is, after the initial screening of the ideas that do not seem promising prima facie, you should conduct an in-depth examination of the chosen three-four before settling for the one where you would like to exert your time, money and energies. You should prepare a business plan that will serve as the road map for effective venturing, whether you may require institutional funding (in which case it is necessary to do so) or not. Setting up of new business enterprises is a very challenging task; you are likely to encounter many problems en route. It’s advisable to be aware of these problems.

Theories of entrepreneurship
1. An economic theory
2. Leibensteon’s X-efficiency theory
3. Dynamic entrepreneurship innovation theory
4. Harvard School theory
5. Theory of high achievement
6. Theory of change
7. Theory of profit
8. Theory of adjustment of price
9. Theory of market
10. Theory of social change
11. Theory of entrepreneurial supply
12. Theory of personal resourcefulness
13. Theory of cultural values 

Entrepreneur is a person who takes the responsibility of initiating and establishing an enterprise or an organisation under conditions of uncertainty.

Some of the essential qualities of entrepreneurs are as follows

1. Creativity
2. Passion
3. Motivation
4. Product or service knowledge
5. Ability to network
6. Self-confidence
7. Optimism
8. Vision
9. Goal mindset
10. Risk-taking
11. Persuasiveness
12. Decision-making
13. Tenacity
14. Money management
15. Adaptability

Entrepreneur - Derived from French verb enterprendre meaning “to undertake”.

The entrepreneur as a person brings in overall change through, innovation- for the maximum social good. Human values remain sacred and inspire him to serve society. He has firm belief in social betterment and he carries out this responsibility with conviction. In this process, he accelerates personal, economic as well as human- development.

The entrepreneur is a visionary and an integrated man with outstanding leadership qualities. With a desire to excel, he gives top priority to Research and Development. He always works for the well being of the society. More importantly entrepreneurial activities encompass all fields / sectors and foster a spirit of enterprise for the welfare of mankind. Urges of an Entrepreneur

An urge to exercise powers over things and objects persists among all human beings. The urge may vary in degree from person to person. This urge is an intrinsic quality of an entrepreneur. Sociologists consider him as a sensitive energizer in the modernization of societies.

The entrepreneur is a critical factor in the socio-economic change. He is the key person who envisages new opportunities, new techniques, new lines of production, new products and coordinates all other activities. The true entrepreneur is one who is endowed with more than average capacities in the task of organizing and coordinating the various other factors of production. He should be a pioneer, a captain of industry. The supply of such entrepreneurship is however quite limited and enterprise in general consists of several grades of organizational skill and capability. The more efficient entrepreneurs receive a surplus reward over and above the managerial wages and this sum constitutes true profit ascribable to superior talent.

Export and import- an overview

The major thrust of livestock development strategy in India has been on achieving self-sufficiency in livestock products through import substitution. Several initiatives were taken to develop the Indian livestock sector in the past and India emerged as the largest milk producer in the world and it is also one of the largest producers of other livestock commodities. However, the economic policy reforms and economic liberalization triggered in 1991 have widened market opportunities for the livestock sector. The global demand for livestock products is also on the rise. Such developments offer an opportunity for India to increase its livestock exports, especially for products like bovine meat, whose domestic demand is low. With improved domestic production and marketing efficiency, better access to expanding world market, India has the potential to become more competitive and may augment port of livestock products. The export and import details reveal that there has been a steady increase in the value of imports and exports of livestock and livestock products in India.

Government role in marketing of milk

Ever since independence the dairy sector in India has been regulated. The government projects and programmes in place for enhancing dairy development include subsidies for developing infrastructure for milk processing and testing. The Clean Milk Production Programme is a centrally sponsored scheme that is being implemented by the State Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries with several objectives: i) the creation and strengthening of necessary infrastructure for the production of quality milk and milk products at the farm level up to the points of consumption; ii) improvement of milking techniques; and iii) training to enhance awareness on the importance of hygienic milk production. Several other rural development initiatives support dairying, such as through the District Rural Development Agency and women’s self help groups. An area of government support that has not been capitalized on so far is the investment in promoting the nutritional aspects of milk, particularly pasteurized milk versus loose milk.

In India, we have mostly two types of standards, which govern the sale of foods including milk and milk products.

These are: Legal standards and Quality standards.

Legal standards

Legal standard means the specifications or the requirements which pertain to the law of the Govt. and are set up by the Govt. to meet certain minimum requirements in terms of chemical quality (i.e. composition), bacteriological quality (i.e. hygienic quality), and labelling and packaging requirements.

In our country, legal standards are given under Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) Rules, 1954-1955 (which are amended from time to time). Legal standards or PFA standards prescribe the minimum requirements for all types and categories of food. These standards are consistent with the minimum quality that is attainable under Indian conditions by the majority of the farmers, producers, processors, sale agencies etc. Further, any food that does not confirm to the minimum standards laid down by the legal rulers (PFA rules) is said to be adulterated, irrespective whether anything has been added to or removed from the original food.

Marketing of perishable and non perishable products

Agriculture and livestock products like food grains, vegetables, meat, eggs etc. are highly perishable over time. Under ambient conditions they get spoiled with in a few hours, days or months as the case may be. Livestock products particularly milk is perishable within a few hours if not preserved under refrigeration. Same is the case of meat. Eggs also get spoiled within a few days if not preserved under cold storage. Because of these reasons perishable products pose special marketing problems. Unfortunately in a country like India most of the agriculture and livestock products are produced by large number of small producers and the process of marketing is to a large extent is in the unorganised sector. Fortunately in our country a number of states like Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Maharastra, Gujarath and others, milk is marketed through cooperatives. For example in Karnataka, milk is procured by primary milk producers’ cooperative societies, transported, processed and marketed through milk unions located at district level and coordinated at state level by state milk federation that is Karnataka Milk Federation(KMF). Some states also have slightly different marketing organisation for egg marketing also. In the unorganised sector these products go through wholesalers, semi wholesalers, private vendors, retailers and ultimately reach the consumers.

Market information

As defined by Philip Kotler, Marketing information system is continuing & interacting structure of people, equipment & procedure designed to gather, sort, analyze, evaluate, distribute pertinent, timely and accurate information for use by marketing decision makers, to improve their marketing planning, execution and control.

It is the job of collecting, interpreting and disseminating large variety of data which are needed for the smooth operation of marketing processes. In many countries Government agencies undertake this function and sometimes organisations such as chambers of commerce, board of traders etc. perform this function. The Directorate of Economics and Statistics and concerned state marketing departments collect data regarding a) quantity of various products produced in different areas, b) quantities of products held in storage, c) arrivals in various markets, d) prices prevailing in local, regional, national and international markets. The informative data so collected is disseminated through radio, television, news papers, weekly and monthly bulletins. Daily prices are published in most of the news papers. The informative marketing data is also collected through sales executives and from those personnel who are specially appointed as specialists by various trading firms.

Marketing functions

The process of marketing involve a number of marketing functions. They may be grouped under:

Functions of exchange which include

1) Buying and assembling and

2) Selling.

B. Functions of physical supply which include

1) Transportation and

2) Storage or warehousing.

Price determination under perfect competition - It can be called as a market structure characterized by a complete absence of competition or rivalry among the individual firms. The sellers and buyers cannot determine the price, only the Industry decides the price of the goods. It means the forces of supply and demand determine the price of the goods

Perfect competition is defined as a market situation where there are a large number of sellers of a homogeneous product. An individual firm supplies a very small portion of the total output and is not powerful enough to exert an influence on the market price. A single buyer, however large, is not in a position to influence the market price.

Demand under perfect competition

Demand refers to the quantity of a product that consumers are willing to purchase at a particular price, while other factors remain constant. A consumer demands more quantity at lower price and less quantity at higher price. Therefore, the demand varies at different prices. Market demand means the sum of the quantity demanded by individual buyers at different prices.

According to traditional marketing concept, marketing is a mere physical process or set of activities connected with the exchange of goods or selling. According to traditional concept marketing is sales oriented. According to this concept marketing is more concerned with all those activities or operations which help the flow of goods from the producers or manufacturers to the ultimate consumers or users. From the point of production to consumption, the following steps are involved.

1. Goods have to be gathered and transported there by creating place utility.

2. Goods have to be made available to the consumers or users at the time when they are needed by consumers. This is done by storing the commodities in warehouses and cold stores etc. This creates time utility.

3. Goods are sold to consumers thereby transferring the ownership or title from the seller to the consumer. This creates “ownership utility” or “possession utility”. The various activities that help in the creation of place, time and possession utilities and help the flow of goods from the centers of production to the centers of consumption or use constitute the subject matter of marketing.

Classification of market

There are several bases on which markets are classified.

a. On the basis of location

On the basis of the place of location or operation, markets are of the following types:

Village market

A market which is located in a small village, where major transactions take place among the buyers and sellers of a village, is called a village market.

Primary markets

• These markets are located in big towns near the centres of production of commodities. In these markets, a major part of the produce is brought for sale by the producer-farmers themselves. Transactions in these markets usually take place between the producers/farmers and traders.

Goods and services are created through process of production. After production they have to be transferred or moved from the original producers to the final consumers. This involves the creation of market and the undertaking of number of activities such as buying, assembling, transportation warehousing, risk bearing, financing, selling etc. This constitutes the subject matter of marketing. Hence there is the need for the study of market.

What is market?

Market is derived from the Latin word “Marcatus” meaning trade, merchandise, ware, traffic or place of business. In the ordinary language, market is a place where buyers and sellers meet personally and make their purchases or sales. But in the language of economics, market need not be a place but it may be an area or region meant for potential exchange between a group of buyers and sellers interested in negotiating the terms of purchase and sale of goods and services and such negotiations may be done face to face at a certain place or may be done through other means of communication such as mail, phone, cable, television or through business middle men. Whatever may be the means of communication there will be free exchange or perfect communication between buyers and sellers so that a fairly uniform price prevails for a particular commodity over the whole area at any given time.

Entrepreneurship involves seeking and exploiting opportunities available for the benefit of the society. The changing agro-economic conditions in our country have offered a prospective context for developing entrepreneurship in agri-business in the country. Agri-entrepreneurship has the prospect of social and economic development, for example, employment generation, poverty reduction, improvements in nutrition, health and overall food security in the national economy especially in rural areas. The task of promoting entrepreneurship was earlier given to different departments and government agencies. In 2014, the Prime Minister decided to dedicate an entire ministry to build this sector as he felt that skill development required greater push from the government’s side. The idea is to reach maximum people and startups through funding and skill development initiatives.

Entrepreneurship opportunities in veterinary sciences have expanded significantly with the integration of technology. The convergence of veterinary expertise and innovative technological solutions has opened up new avenues for entrepreneurs to create impactful businesses in the field. This field offers a wide range of opportunities for persons passionate about animal health and welfare. In the recent years, the demand for high-quality veterinary services and products has increased tremendously, creating an enriching environment for aspiring entrepreneurs. There are various avenues available in the veterinary industry for individuals thinking about establishing their own businesses.

India is the fastest-growing pet care market in the world and the pet population is of an estimate of 28-29 million, with dogs making up the bulk of pet ownership. The rising pet ownership has led to the growth of the pet care ecosystem comprising retail chains, pet nutrition pharmaceuticals, grooming, toys, clothing, diagnostics, and clinical practice. The pandemic of Covid-19 has a significant impact on the Indian economy; and the pet industry has seen a steep growth during the pandemic period. Isolation and anxiety during the lockdown led to many restorations to adopt furry companions. The veterinary graduate has a lot of opportunities, and it depends upon the individual as to what sector the student wants to pursue. Employment opportunities include diverse areas such as clinical practice, teaching, and research, regulatory medicines, public health, wildlife specialist, or lab animals. Depending upon the interest, one can start exploring options to work for the pet industry and join the Veterinary pet practice clinical.

Artificial intelligence is a computational science concerned with smart computer machines capable of performing tasks similar to the human intelligence. The term AI is widely used for the projects involved in the developing the intellectual processes of human intelligence such as reasoning ability, meaning discovery, generalization, learning from the past. AI technology mainly analyses the huge amount of data based on the set of instructions or commands known as algorithms to do a specific function or task. The mathematician Alan Turing with a simple question “Can machines think?” revolutionised the history. His paper “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” in 1950 and Turing test has favour the development of goal and the vision of AI.

The research in AI are mainly focussed on the following intelligence components namely:

1. Learning
2. Reasoning
3. Problem solving
4. Perception
5. Language use

India is an agrarian country and the agriculture and allied sector is the largest employer of workforce as it accounted for a sizeable 18.8 per cent in 2021-22 in Gross Value Added (GVA) of the country (Economic Survey 2021-22).Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about 58% of India’s population and only the food processing industry employs about 1.77 million people (Indian Agriculture and Allied Industries Industry Report, November 2021). In the year 2019-20, gross value added by agriculture, forestry, and fishing was estimated at Rs. 19.48 lakh crore (US$ 276.37 billion). But still farming community has to face lot of hardships. The farmers are still applying chemical fertilizers on the basis of their own experiences as they don’t possess the soil heath cards. Although central government has initiated Soil Health Management (SHM) scheme to assist State Governments to set up new static Soil Testing Laboratories (STLs) and Mini Soil testing Labs (MSTLs). But it is time consuming and cumbersome process. There is great opportunity for Agri-business entrepreneurs with a commercially viable solution to farmers by development of simplified, sensor based and quick soil testing methods to test the nutrients and micronutrients.

Unemployment is a big challenge in every sector. In Jammu and Kashmir unemployment rate is 22.2 percent as per the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) figures, and the rate is even higher than the National level unemployment rate of 7.1 percent recorded across India. Livestock sector plays an important role in rural livelihood, employment and income generation. There is a huge opportunity in this sector for developing start-up at their own and generation of employment. This is all possible if the skilled graduate of animal husbandry can be motivated for fostering new idea of startup which is market driven. Major livestock products like milk and milk products, meat and eggs contribute around one-sixth of the calories and one-third of the proteins in the per capita food supplies of the world. Animal husbandry is the second largest economic activity of rural India. Animal husbandry is a growth engine and annual growth rate in dairying is 5 % and in poultry it is 10% and will alleviate rural poverty and uplift the rural farmer. The availability of per capita animal protein is 10.8g whereas the requirement as per world average is 25g. National sample survey reports that 70-75% of their food budget is for milk and milk products. The need of the hour is increase in production, productivity and improvement through value addition in the marketing channel. Commercialization of cow dung and urine will also encourage people to not discard cows which have stopped milk production. By-products like urine and dung can be used for medicinal and agriculture purposes. It has been reported that startups would receive upto 60 per cent initial investment from Government for by-products like cow dung and urine. Eco friendly products can be prepared from dung and urine like Bio CNG, vermicompost, incense sticks, flowerpots, dung log etc.

Current scenario of Startups in India

India, currently is being evolved as a hub for Revolution, innovation and Startups as it holds 3^rd rank in global startup ecosystem worldwide after US and China. The flagship initiative of Government, Startup India, is intended to construct arobust eco-system for fostering innovations and startups in the country. Through this initiative, the Government aims to empower the growth of startups through new innovations and strategies. As per the reports of Startup India, the startup sector is expected to mark steady annual growth of 12-15% (startupindia.gov.in). By the year 2018, India already had a list of about 50,000 startups. As per the data, more than 800 technology startups are being established every year (NASSCOM, 2015). The annual growth has increased to 15% and the number of female entrepreneurs has also increased to 14% (startupindia.gov.in). As of December 2021, the country is home to 81 unicorns which has a total estimate of $ 274.17 Bn. Out of these unicorns, 44 unicorns came into existence in 2021 itself, which was a record year for the country. These Figures show that startups have exploded in the country in recent years.

An entrepreneur is an individual who creates a new business, bearing most of the risks and enjoying most of the rewards. The process of setting up a business is known as entrepreneurship. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as an innovator, a source of new ideas, goods, services, and business/or procedures.

Entrepreneurship is an act of being an entrepreneur, or “the owner or manager of a business enterprise who, by risk and initiative, attempts to make profits”. Entrepreneurs act as managers and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise. Entrepreneurship is the process by which either an individual or a team identifies a business opportunity and acquires and deploys the necessary resources required for its exploitation.

An entrepreneur uses their time, energy, and resources into creating value for others. They are rewarded for this effort monetarily and therefore both the consumer of the value created and the entrepreneur are benefitted.

Introduction

Everyone is familiar with the term start-up or entrepreneurship which refers to a process by which individuals start and manage their businesses and industrial enterprises. Entrepreneurs are people who take risks and invest their capital in businesses and industrial enterprises. Entrepreneurial in terms of personal development in terms of self-determination create take risks Therefore, anyone who exhibits the characteristics of self-development, creativity, personal decision-making, and risk-taking can be called a person with entrepreneurial characteristics. When these characteristics are exhibited by someone who is running a business, they can be called an entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship is the ability and willingness to develop, organize and manage a business enterprise, with all its uncertainties, in order to make a profit. The most prominent example of entrepreneurship is starting a new business. In economics, business activities involving land, labor, natural resources, and capital can generate profits.

Agribusiness is a term used to describe the sector that encompasses all economic activities that are related to farming, i.e., breeding, crop production/farming, farm machinery, distribution, marketing etc. It relates to industries that are engaged in farming or that produce farm inputs. Examples of agribusiness include farm machinery manufacturing, seed supply, and agrichemicals. It also is used to describe businesses that are involved in the marketing and distribution of farm products. These businesses include warehouses, wholesalers, processors, retailers, and more. Any company that participates in the production, marketing, safety, and distribution of food is involved in agribusiness. More precisely it is defined as a sector that supports the growth of the agricultural industry, which is pivotal to economic growth. It also continues to play a crucial role in the growth of developing countries. Agribusinesses can potentially improve agricultural productivity, which is why governments often offer subsidies to agricultural businesses. Agricultural activities also contribute to an improved system of food security and sustainable food production, as well as income for a majority of the poor in developing countries. However, the activities increase the emission of greenhouse gases and contribute to global warming – which is why innovation is important in the sector to address such problems.

Objective: To identify agriculturally important insect orders and understand their key morphological characteristics relevant to their impact on agriculture.

Objective: To study and document the taxonomic characteristics of Siphonaptera and Trichoptera, emphasizing their unique morphological features and ecological adaptations.

Objective: To explore and document the taxonomic characteristics of Strepsiptera and Mecoptera, highlighting their unique morphological features and biological adaptations.