eChapters

ABSTRACT

The rapid growth in population has created the need of industrialization and as a result there has been a significant increase in milk production and processing. Milk is a commodity which is consumed by persons of all age groups due to its nutritive value and health promoting attributes. However, the rapid growth in dairy sector has adversely affected the environment by emitting various greenhouse gases and thereby, resulting in global warming. Apart from it, there has been an increased usage of non- renewable resources like natural gas and coal in dairy sector. As a result, a viable balance has to be maintained between milk production and processing, environmental health and the rapidly growing population. This can only be achieved with the application of green or environment friendly technologies in all the stages of milk production and processing. This chapter will mainly deal with the various sources of greenhouse gases from dairy sector and on application of life cycle assessment and carbon foot printing for computing the impact of greenhouse gases on the environment. Also, this chapter will enclose various green technologies which can be applied in dairy sector to curb the greenhouse gas emissions.

Keywords: Carbon footprint, LCA, Greenhouse gases, Green Technology, Milk production, Milk Processing

Abstract

Cultivation of cash crops of good quality potent to give good economic returns depends largely upon adoption of modern practices in agriculture. The region under test consideration is completely irrigated and cultivates mostly the crops of grapes and sugarcane. A field testing that was carried out for the pumps used by local farmers, revealed glaring inefficiency in pump operation. This is attributed to numerous reasons, the standout of them-being improper pump selection and deviation from operating point. Survey of the farming pattern helped to establish nexus between the energy usages per acre for the two crops. Carbon Footprint was determined for the electricity utilized in these farms. Adoption of selection methodologies and efficient practices would lead to considerable saving in electrical power consumption. The impact of adoption of efficient practices was therefore quantified.

Keywords: Agriculture, Carbon Footprint, Pumps

Introduction
Global aquaculture plays a significant role in ensuring food security both directly (by making food more accessible and available) and indirectly (by promoting economic growth). Since the 1980s, aquaculture production has increased, and it has been suggested that there is theoretically enormous potential for further growth. FAO came to the conclusion that the industry should acknowledge the pertinent environmental and social issues as it continues to grow, intensify, and diversify. Climate change, and more especially the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that occur along food supply chains, is one of the major environmental (and social) problems. We must comprehend how aquaculture contributes to global GHG emissions and how to reduce them in order to support its sustainable growth (FAO, 2019).
What are Green House Gases?
Heat-trapping gases in the earth’s atmosphere are referred to as greenhouse gases, or GHGs. Maintaining a temperature on Earth that is conducive to life depends on greenhouse gases. The average temperature on Earth would be around -20°C if the greenhouse effect didn’t exist. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, human activity has raised the atmospheric quantities
of greenhouse gases. The major GHG’s emitted into the earth’s atmosphere is given in Fig. 1.

10.1 Introduction

A single-walled carbon nanotube (SW-CNT) is a nano scale tube formed by a cylindrical shell of single atomic layer of carbon atoms. Nanotubes have diameter of a few nm and length up to 100 nm so that they form extremely thin wires. The atomic structure of SWCNT can be formed by wrapping a stripe of single atomic layer of graphite sheet al.,ong a certain direction, and this direction determines the diameter and chirality of the nanotubes. Experimental and theoretical studies have found that these nano-meter sized CNTs have novel electronic properties, which can be metallic or semiconducting, depending on their radius or chiralities (Mintmire 1992, Hamada 1992, Saito et. al., 1992, Rao 1997, Wildoer 1998 and Odom et al., 1998).

Introduction Nanoscience is a competitive and trending concept in present scientific community, especially in agricultural and allied sciences. The usage of nano-sized materials in food processing sector spreading slowly. With the passage of time and innovation continuation in nanotechnology creating interest to develop miniaturized sensors. Miniaturized sensors have lots of benefits like reducing bulkiness with low power consumption and this eventually reduces the cost. Generally inorganic semiconductors are widely used to develop nano sensors. Generally, sensors are composed of two basic unit which are an identification element and a signal transducer element. Due to its simple structure, high portability and low price, can benefitted against disadvantages of existing system, which are costlier and much more popular. High portability, ease of placement and use make it suitable for onsite use with real-time monitoring. Also, helps in qualitative and quantitative analysis of such substances during analysis of foods which may cause danger and thus inhabit a wider research and development space. For the detection of different unwanted materials or compositions in food, various chemical or biological sensing devices based on different working principles have been developed. The carbon-based nano material can be categories as Ordered Mesoporous Carbon, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene and Its derivatives, and Carbon Dots.

Introduction

Today, according to Global Assessment of Land Degradation and Improvement (GLADA), nearly one forth area of our world land has been degraded (Arora 2019). The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) is leading the issues of soil or land degradation to restore valuable natural resources for achieving a land degradation neutral world by 2030 (Cowie et al., 2018; IPBES, 2018; Bhattacharya, 2020). Land degradation neutrality (LDN) can be achieved primarily through adoption of sustainable land management practices. Soil organic carbon (SOC) plays a multifunctional role and is sensitive to land management practices and a key indicator of soil quality, soil health and LDN. Soil is a major reservoir of terrestrial C in the biosphere and plays an important role in global C cycle. Therefore, a little change in SOC pool can significantly influence the atmospheric CO2 concentration. In general, 1 Pg of SOC stock is equivalent to about 0.47 ppm of CO2 in the atmosphere, and vice versa (Lal, 2018). Besides this it maintains overall soil sustainability and enhances food security.

Achieving carbon neutrality in Indian soils is a major challenge. Because, productive land goes out of cultivation and marginal or degraded land comes under cultivation due to urbanization, industrialization and various development activities. Also, it is very difficult to increase SOC because climatic condition prevails with a high rate of decomposition. According to an UN report, India will be the most populated country in the world and expected to add 273 million people between 2019 and 2050 which will exert huge pressure on natural resources, particularly soil and water to fulfil the increasing food demands of such ever-growing population. The extensive use of natural resources along with intensive cultivation will enhance greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission, slow down agricultural productivity, enhance land degradation, and decline factor productivity of major production systems. Due to change in distribution of rainfall and concurrent rise in temperature owing to climate change, the fertile top soil becomes more prone to degradation.

14.1 Introduction

Atmospheric concentration of CO₂ has increased from 280 ppm in pre-industrial era to 385 ppm in 2008 (+ 37.5%) and is presently increasing at the rate of 2 ppm yr^-1 or 3.5 Pg yr^-1 (1 Pg or petagram = 1 Gt = 1 gigaton = 1 billion metric ton). The increase in CO₂ emission by human activity is attributed to fossil fuel combustion, deforestation and biomass burning, soil cultivation and drainage of wetlands or peat soils. Increase in fossil fuel combustion is caused by high global energy demand of 475 Quads (1 quad = 1015 BTU) and increasing at the rate of 2.5 % yr^-1, especially in emerging economies including China, India, Mexico, Brazil, etc. The world population of 6.7 billion in 2008 is increasing at the rate of 1.3 % yr^-1 and is projected to be 9.5 billion by 2050 before stabilizing at 10 billion towards the end of the 21^st century. There exists a strong positive correlation between population growth on the one hand and CO₂ emission or the energy demand on the other. The People’s Republic of China accounted for 13% of the world’s C emissions in 2002 and that share is projected to rise to 18% by 2025 (Lal, 2004a).

INTRODUCTION

Climate change is one of the most important global environmental challenges facing humanity with implications for food production, natural ecosystems, freshwater supply, health, habitat destruction biodiversity, etc. According to the latest scientific assessment, the earth’s climate system has demonstrably changed on both global and regional scales since the pre-industrial era. Since the very beginning of civilization, land resources have been under tremendous pressure for food and forest products. Anthropogenic activities have affected the biosphere through changes in the landuse and forest management activities, thus altering the natural balance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The environmental security thus, has become a serious concern across the globe. The meteorological records have shown significant increase in the environmental temperature referred to as the global warming. Human activities have increased green house gases and raised global temperature by 0.50 C over the past 100 yr, which may increase by 1.4 to 5.8°C during the next century (Bhadwal and Singh 2002). Evidence of this global crisis include the rise in global sea levels by 3.4 mm yr-1 ((http://climate. nasa.gov/vital-signs/sea-level/) through the melting of the world’s snow peaks and glaciers, which poses a threat to millions living in coastal areas. A drastic effect on splitting of huge glacier in the Antarctica has already been registered, which has thrown a challenge to save the earth, lest the very survival of the mankind will be jeopardized. Each degree rise in temperature will displace the limits of tolerance of land species some 125 km towards the poles or 150 m vertically on mountains. The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that 20 to 30 per cent of plants and animals could be at risk of extinction if average global temperatures reach the projected levels (Hawkes et al., 2000).

Greenhouse gas emission is likely to rise by 25-90% by 2030 relative to 2000 and the earth could warm by 3° C at the end of this century. Even with a temperature rise of 1-2.5° C, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predict serious disastrous effects, including reduction in crop yields in tropical and subtropical areas leading to increased risk of food shortage, spread of climate responsive diseases such as malaria, and an increased risk of extinction of 20-30% of all biodiversity present on earth (IPCC, 2007). Carbon dioxide is the most important among all greenhouse gases. Carbon sequestration may be defined as the process of removing C from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir. It entails the transfer of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and its secure storage in long-lived pools (UNFCCC, 2007).

From the agroforestry point of view, carbon sequestration involves primarily the uptake of atmospheric CO₂ during photosynthesis and transfer of fixed carbon into vegetation and soil pools for ‘secure’ storage. It occurs in two major segments of agroforestry systems; aboveground and belowground. The total amount sequestered in each part differs greatly depending on a number of factors including the region, the type of system, site quality, and previous land-use (Nair, 2012). On average, the soil and aboveground parts are estimated to hold major portions, roughly 60 and 30%, respectively, of the total carbon stored in tree-based land-use systems (Lal, 2010). Sequestering CO₂ from atmosphere through natural techniques such as afforestation, reforestation, natural regeneration of forests and the adaptive agriculture is more economically and ecologically sound in increasing the carbon storage capacity of the terrestrial ecosystems (Dhyani, 2014). Although carbon sequestration through afforestation and reforestation of degraded natural forests has long been considered useful in climate change mitigation, agroforestry offers some distinct advantages (Murthy et al., 2013). The carbon in the aboveground and belowground biomass in an agroforestry system is generally much higher than the equivalent land use without trees. An agroforestry system has higher carbon sequestration potential than pastures or field crops (Kirby and Potvin, 2007).

ABSTRACT

The increasing level of green house gases in general CO₂ in particular has raised concerns about the vulnerability of human, animal and plant life. These concerns have prompted the Governments world over to take the appropriate measures to save them from perspective destruction. Forests though serve as source and sink of the CO₂, there is need to synthesize the impact of climate change on forests and the role of forests in global carbon cycle. Climate change needs to become part of decision making in forest management. Also, the agroforestry, a potential carbon sequestration activity is lagging behind, there is a growing interest in it in countries that have not only ratified Kyoto Protocol but also facing many other ecological problems on their private working land. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) offers benefits through sink credits and reduces the negative impact of climate change, therefore, necessary institutional arrangements should be put in place to use CDM projects effectively for generating resources through afforestation and reforestation projects for the well being of present as well as future generation. Forest/agroforestry scientists/managers need to realize the current degree of vulnerability and start thinking about their ability to cope with the impacts. Governments have initiated negotiations on policy actions to reduce the green house gases and addressed the vulnerabilities of the ecological, economic and social systems to climate change. It may be one of the least expensive ways for industries to off-set their carbon emission and tree growers to benefit through the carbon trade. Despite the fact that the certain aspects under Kyoto Protocol are still under clarification and negotiation, the forest plantations will play an important role in carbon sequestration and the implementation of Kyoto Protocol. Since the development of plantation is a slow process, the dividends will only be realized after a gap therefore the new plantation should be taken up without delay and the old one be managed as per their silvicultural rotation.

Global climate changing has been a focus for a long time in many fields, the increasing CO₂ concentration in atmosphere was considered as one main driving force for global warming. The increases in greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere contributed to raise concerns over climate change enhanced the role of forests and plantations in the global carbon cycle are growing as a great issue. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is one of the main greenhouse gases because a huge volume of CO₂ is added to the atmosphere, when compare to all other greenhouse gases and made itself as a primary agent of global warming. It contributed 72 per cent of the total anthropogenic greenhouse gases, causing between 9-26 per cent of the greenhouse effect (Kiehl and Trenberth, 1997). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), there has been an unprecedented warming trend during the 20th century. Scientists now have estimated that the average global surface temperature is likely to rise by 1.4 to 5.8°C by the end of the 21^st century (IPCC 2007).

The IPCC estimates that the level of carbon dioxide in today’s atmosphere is 31 per cent higher than it was at the start of the Industrial Revolution about 250 years ago. An atmospheric level of CO₂ has risen from 280 ppm at the pre-industrial to the present level of 375 ppm. Most of the increase has occurred in the second half of the 20^th century. The mitigation of climate change demands, determined commitment of scientists to develop strategies to effectively manage the issues of the changing climate through carbon sequestration. Carbon sequestration is ought to be a promising solution for reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide, an important greenhouse gas.

Carbon dating uses the half-life of Carbon-14 to find the approximate age of an object that is 40,000 years old or younger.

5.1 What is radiocarbon dating ?

Radiocarbon dating is a method of estimating the age of organic material. It was developed right after World War II by Willard F. Libby and coworkers, and it has provided a way to determine the ages of different materials in archeology, geology, geophysics, and other branches of science. Some examples of the types of material that radiocarbon can determine the ages are wood, charcoal, marine and freshwater shell, bone and antler, and peat and organic-bearing sediments. Age determinations can also be obtained from carbonate deposits such as calcite, dissolved carbon dioxide, and carbonates in ocean, lake, and groundwater sources.

All life on planet Earth is carbon centered; hereditary characters are controlled by DNA and RNA, growth by proteins and activities by energy from carbohydrates and fats – all these are carbon compounds. Not only this, but the life also ends as carbon compounds CO₂ or CH₄, depending on aerobic or anaerobic decomposition. Incidentally soil fertility also depends very much on soil organic carbon (SOC). In ancient days, farmers used to apply manure to maintain soil fertility and even now, urea, the nitrogen fertilizer used in the largest amounts, is a carbon compound. All living forms on the Earth including all plant and animal species and their activities are a part of global carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the earth.

4.1 Introduction

Biomass is referred to as an indirect source of solar energy and considered a source of stored chemical energy. Biomass is renewable organic material derived from plants and animals serving as sources of energy. Biomass produced from agricultural sector is big challenges for all over the world due to its improver disposal. Mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and ensuring adequate global food supplies represent two of the last decade’s mostdifficult challenges.Although global food production has benefitted from chemical fertilizers, environmental problems have emerged as a result of their use. Additionally, overuse of fertilizers can result in hardened soil, decreased soil fertility, polluted air and water, and the release of greenhouse gases. There is an urgent need to find an alternative to chemical fertilizers that, ideally, can be sourced in abundant amounts, promotes global food production, enhances CO₂ capture , and does not affect soil health or damage the environment¹. To sustain agricultural productivity, it is crucial to maintain adequate levels of organic matter in the soil to preserve its physical, chemical, and biological integrity. Biochar, a pyrogenic black carbon, may play an important role in improving soil health, resulting in higher crop yield and absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Biochar is the most auspicious straw management measures and have highest carbon abatement and economic profit².

Biochar is produced by heating biomass at high temperatures (300 – 600 °C) in a closed reactor containing no to partial levels of air. Under these conditions, biomass undergoes thermo-chemical conversion into biochar. Because of its numerous potentials uses in agriculture, energy, and the environment, much attention has been given to biochar in both political and academic areas. Biochar can be used in a variety of applications such as energy production, agriculture, carbon sequestration, waste water treatment, and bio-refinery; additionally, biochar provides an alternative strategy for managing organic waste. These advantages have renewed the interest of agricultural researchers in producing biochar from bio-residues and using the product as a soil amendment.

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Queen of spices, native to East Indies/ India, originating in the forests of the Western Ghats in Southern India.

• Also grows in Sri Lanka, Guatemala, Indo China and Tanzania.

• Cultivated in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

2.2. Economic importance

• Used for flavouring various preparations of food, confectionery, beverages and liquors.

• Used as whole pod, seeds or ground.

• Used in garam masala

• Spice mixture seasons meat and vegetable dishes, and masala chai and Turkish coffee.

• Antioxidant and diuretic properties

• May lower blood pressure.

• May contain cancer-fighting compounds.

• May protect from chronic diseases due to anti-inflammatory effects.

• May help with digestive problems including ulcers.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton.) acclaimed as the ‘Queen of Spices’ is the true cardamom belonging to the family Zingiberaceae. The cardamom of commerce is the dried ripe fruit and is one of the most important valued spices next only to saffron. It is native of evergreen forests of Western Ghats of South India. Cardamom is a shade loving plant (Pseophyte) thriving well in elevations up to 600-1200 m above MSL under an average annual rainfall of 1500-4000 mm and temperature range of 10-350C. India has been the world’s largest producer of cardamom until 1979-80. Later, Guatemala emerged as world’s premier producer and the exporter of cardamom accounting for about 90 per cent of the global trade. Cardamom is also grown lesser extent in Sri Lanka, Papua New Guinea and Tanzania.

Cardamom thrips: Sciothrips cardamomi: Thripidae

Thysanoptera

This thrips attacks other crops like amomum,  tea, colocasia, grapevine, castor, cotton, ginger and turmeric also. The thrips are minute greyish brown insects with fringed wings. They breed on unopened leaves, spindles, leaf sheath, flower bracts and floral tubes .

English name : Small cardamom, Lesser cardamom, Malabar cardamom
Botanical name : Elettaria cardamomum Maton
Family : Zingiberaceae
Chromosome number : 2n = 48
Centre of origin : Western Ghats of India
The cardamom of commerce is the dried capsule of Elettaria cardamomum Maton., commonly called the “queen of spices.” Crop is as one of the most significant and highly valued spices globally, it rank  after saffron and vanilla in terms of price and trade significance. The name Elettaria originates from the Tamil word elattari, where ela refers to cardamom fruit, and tari means granules or seeds of the fruit. Meanwhile, the term Cardamomum from the Greek word cardamon, which denotes cardamom. Cardamom is one of the oldest known spices, originated in India’s Southern Western Ghats around 5,000 years ago. It was among the first spices, along with cinnamon, to enter the western trade. Indian cardamom is distinctive in the global spice market due to its superior quality. The dried capsules produce essential oil and oleoresin, which contribute to its aroma and therapeutic properties. These qualities are attributed to the essential oil content (ranging from 3-8%) found in both the seed and husk. The primary components of this oil include 1,8-cineole, terpineol, and limonene.

Small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton), popularly known as the “Queen of spices”, occupies an important position among the foreign exchange earning commodities. It is cultivated on a commercial scale in Sri
Lanka, Guatemala, Tanzania and Papua New Guinea. Guatemala is the largest producer of cardamom in the World. In India, it is confined to the States of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Among these States, Kerala
accounts for the major portion of production (58.4 %), followed by Karnataka (35.2 %) and Tamil Nadu (6.4 %). In Kerala, Cardamom is mainly grown in the erstwhile Travancore area in Idukki district and it is known as the Cardamom Hill Reserve (CHR). Cardamom is a native of the moist evergreen rain forests of the Western Ghats and is grown extensively in the hilly regions at elevations of 700 to 1300 metres as an under crop in forest lands. Cardamom thrives well within certain maximum and minimum thermal regimes. It is believed that diurnal symmetries in temperature trends, if any, have close links with the changes in cloudiness, humidity, atmospheric circulation pattern, winds and soil moisture. The land use pattern of cardamom tracts has changed to a great extent in recent decades. Crops like coffee, black pepper and areca nut are being cultivated at many locations in place of cardamom. With denudation of forests in many cardamom areas, the ideal cool humid microclimate has been destabilized and adversely affected the productivity of the crop.

The word cardiac arrest (CA) or heart attack is frightening. In animals heart attack does not occur in the manner as it occurs in humans. In humans the main cause of cardiac arrest or heart attack is coronary infarct. The prevalence of cardiac arrest or cardiopulmonary arrest (CPA) or heart attack in animals is relatively very low as coronary infarct is not a common disease in animals.

Key Points

• Cardiac crises can result in deadly outcomes. Prompt and precise diagnosis leads to early symptom alleviation and increased survival.

• Many illnesses qualify as cardiac crises, including thromboembolic disease, cardiac tamponade, arrhythmogenic disease, and congestive heart failure.

Introduction

A cardiovascular emergency is defined as any condition affecting the heart or vasculature that prevents appropriate blood flow, tissue perfusion, or oxygenation. Cardiac emergencies include a wide range of disorders such as arrhythmias, cardiac tamponade/pericardial effusions, and congestive heart failure (CHF).

Cardiac ultrasound is also known as echocardiography and it has a very important place in the diagnosis of cardiac diseases of the humans as well as animals. Echocardiography is an imaging of the heart using ultrasound. The diagnosis of congenital heart diseases, shunts, complex malformations, valvular heart diseases, different cardiomyopathies, endocarditis, pericardial effusion, cor pulmonale and cardiac tumours has been possible by cardiac ultra ultrasound that was otherwise difficult.

Crop performance depends on how closely environmental conditions match genetic requirements. Cardinal temperatures define the minimum, optimum and maximum thresholds within which germination, growth and development occur. This chapter explains these thresholds and presents their relevance to major crops. It also examines rainfall, sunshine, humidity, photoperiod and other agroclimatic requirements determining where and when crops can be cultivated successfully. Knowledge of crop-specific requirements supports agroclimatic zoning, variety selection, sowing-date adjustment and assessment of climate-change impacts. Matching crops and cultivars to suitable environmental conditions reduces weather-related risk, improves resource efficiency and helps realize crop-yield potential under present and changing climatic conditions.

Cardiovascular system consists of heart and blood vessels which include both arteries and veins. Blood vessels formation occurs in two stages i.e vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. Splanchnic mesodermal cells lining the yolk sac form clusters, referred to as blood islands. Vasculogenesis, the formation of blood vessels from blood islands of of Pander, commences during the third week of gestation in domestic animals first in yolk sac and later in the allantois.Development of blood vessels involves a complex series of events during which endothelial cells differentiate, proliferate, migrate and become organized into vascular network. Angiogenesis describes budding and sprouting of new vessels from existing vessels. This process a fundamental requirement for embryological development, continues postnatally.

The primary function of cardiovascular system is to maintain blood circulation so that normal exchange of fluid, electrolyte, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrient
and excretory and secretory end products can take place between tissue and blood. Failure of circulation to any degree interferes with the transport and
exchange mechanism.

Common Maintenance

 • Clean the exterior surface with a brush or cotton waste and plenty of water or kerosene oil.

 • Lubricate or lubricate the moving or rubbing surfaces of parts as needed.

 • Filter the chemical solution/fuel oil mixture as it is poured into the tanks. Make the caps or lids leak-proof by using gaskets.

 • Flush the equipment with clean water to clean the insides of containers, tubes, and nozzles.

Care and Maintenance of Hand Sprayer & Duster

• Dusters should be made of dry and sieved dust.

 • Grease the duster gear box once a month.

 • Clean the duster after use by removing all dust from the hopper.

 • Oil the sprayer’s cup and bucket washers on a regular basis.

 • After completing the day’s work, cleanse the spray tank discharge lines and nozzles with clean water.

i) Common Maintenance

Clean outer surface with brush or cotton waste by using plenty of water or kerosene oil.

Oil the moving or rubbing surfaces of parts with lubricating oil or grease.

Filter the chemical solution/ fuel oil mixture while pouring into the tanks. Make the caps or lids leak-proof with gaskets.

Flush the equipment with clean water to wash inside parts of containers, tubes and nozzles to be free from chemicals.

Care and Management of Meat-Type Chickens (Broilers)

Broiler Overview

• Broilers are unisex young chickens raised specifically for meat production. They are typically grown to reach a body weight of 2.0 to 2.5 kg within 5 to 6 weeks, consuming 3.0 to 3.5 kg of feed, resulting in a feed conversion ratio of 1.50 to 1.75.

• Broiler meat is flvored for its tenderness, high-quality protein content, low fat and cholesterol levels, superior flavor, and juiciness.

• The broiler production cycle is divided into three phases based on the birds’ physiological and production needs: broiler starter (0-10 days), broiler grower (11-21 days), and broiler finisher (22 days to marketing).

3.1. Introduction 

Calves are the future replacement stock of dairy farm. The raising of calves, an important operation of the dairy farm requires a great deal of managemental skill, application and constant attention. Any negligency results in increased calf mortality, poor growth and development of the calves. So, care of the calves is important for success of the dairy farm.

Care and Management of Commercial Growers (09-20 weeks) Under Deep Litter System

Grower management essentially remains the same as that of chick management (brooding management) except for the additional space required for floor, feeders and waterers to keep with the size of birds. The growers may be reared in separate grower-houses or continued to be reared in brooder-cum-grower houses.

Floor space: 1260 cm² (1.4 ft²) per bird.

Feeder space: 6-8 cm per bird. One linear feeder of 120 cm length and 8 cm depth for 40 growers.

Waterer space: 2 cm per bird; a circular waterer of 36 cm and 8 cm depth of 6 lit. capacity for 50 growers. Growers are to be provided with fresh, cool and potable drinking water at least twice a day. Water requirement is increased during hot days. Care must be made not to spill water on litter.

Lighting management: No artificial lighting is given other than natural day light since they require only 9 hours of light per day.

Livestock sector has emerged as one of the key components of agricultural growth in developing countries in last few decades. This sector plays a significant role in the economic progress of India as it contributes 26% to the agricultural GDP and provides employment to around 18 million people. Over 70% of the rural households in India depends on livestock farming for supplementary income and is considered as an important instrument in poverty alleviation. It provides the major extra contribution to agriculture through manure, fuel fertilizer, apart from meat and milk that grant a regular supplementary income and employment not only to producers but also to huge size of the population engaged in secondary and tertiary business related to livestock. The economy of Jammu and Kashmir is also agriculture dependent and is the main occupation of majority of the rural people who earn their livelihood from it. Census figures 2011 signify that about 73% of the population of J&K lives in rural areas and are associated with agriculture and allied sectors including livestock rearing as main occupation.

Traveling with your dog can be a delightful experience, whether you're embarking on a road trip, flying to a distant destination, or simply visiting friends and family. However, it requires careful planning and preparation to ensure your dog's safety, comfort, and well-being. This guide covers the essential aspects of traveling with your dog, providing tips and best practices for a smooth journey.

Preparing for the Journey

Health Check and Documentation

1. Veterinary Check-up: Before any trip, schedule a visit to the vet to ensure your dog is healthy and up-to-date on vaccinations. Discuss any travel-specific health concerns with your vet.

2. Documentation: Carry a copy of your dog’s medical records, including vaccination certificates, in case they are needed during your trip. Some destinations require proof of rabies vaccination and other health certifications.

5.1. Introduction

A dry cow is a cow that is not producing milk. Usually cow remains in-milk for about 305 days (average lactation length), after that it remains for a period of about 60 days in dry condition (not giving milk) called dry period. Dry period is critical for a cow for regeneration of her udder and reserve nutrients for the next lactation, otherwise, milk production will not be upto the mark and the cow may suffer from several metabolic diseases after parturition. A dry cow is just as valuable as a lactating cow, therefore should be not neglected. A dry cow management programme includes nutrition, general management and health control programme.

4.1. Introduction

Heifers are young female cattle from 12 months of age to first calving. Heifer management is important as they are future cow of the herd. Proper growth and body condition of the heifers are associated with their early sexual maturity and age at first breeding, and their later productive and reproductive performances, when they become cow. Thus, proper care and management of the heifers is necessary to establish a good dairy herd.

Introduction Care and management of calf • Begins before its birth. • Good dairy herds are raised rather than purchased. • Dam should be dried 6-8 weeks before expected calving and should be fed well. • Underfed dam will give weak and small calves. Steps of calf management 1.  Removal of mucous • Immediately after birth:  removal of mucous or phlegm from nostril, mouth, eyes & ears for normal breathing. • Rub and dry the calf with a dry cloth or gunny bag • If cow not licking: sprinkle a little common salt on calf’s body. • If calf does not start breathing: Provide artificial respiration by: • Compressing and relaxing the chest with hands • Swinging • Inserting twig in nostril 2.  Ligation of naval cord • Cutting of naval cord: ligate-2.5cm & cutting-1cm below.

Small ruminant sector, after agriculture, is the second largest means for economic sustainability and livelihood in India. It contributed Rs. 32000 crore to the gross domestic product of India in 2012 -13 despite having a potential to contribute over Rs. 150,000 crore but there are certain lacunae in system which act as its growth inhibitor. Small ruminants are the main source for rural economies due to participation of women (70% of total) and weaker sections of the rural society. Thus there is urgent need for formulating policies to support the development of the small ruminant sector.
 
Sheep and goat husbandry is a tool for poverty alleviation of the rural masses because of wide adaptability with low investments, high fertility and fecundity, low feed and management costs, higher feed conversion efficiency, quick pay off and low risk in comparison to large ruminants. The above traits of small ruminants need to be exploited for economic upliftment of small farmers.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT

Pregnant female should be fed with green, fresh vegetable, green leaves. Only with good management, healthy young ones can be expected. Similar to birds, rabbits have Nest building behaviour. Around 25 days of pregnancy, keep the pregnant animal in cage provided with bedding material separately. Around 28 days, the female makes nest by pulling the fur from abdominal region and also bedding material. The fur from abdominal region is pulled to make teats clean for young ones to suck milk. If female makes good nest, it can be concluded that it will be a good mother. Some females due to disturbance are unable to make nest and also abandon young ones, go astray.

Act of parturition in rabbit is kindling and it takes place in early hours of day and late evenings. Full process is completed in 90 minutes. In some females, aggressive behaviour is seen. Such aggressive females have good mothering ability.

The young seedling stock and rooted cuttings as well as nursery plants require proper care and nourishment. The operations to be performed regularly in nurseries are as follows.

1. Shifting of plants: The nursery plants grown in the pots or polybags are to be shifted once in 2-3 months to avoid root penetration into the soil. If the taproot penetrates deep into the soil, the chances of mortality increases. Hence shifting of grafts and potted plants has to be done at the said intervals
2. Removal of rootstock sprouts: Once has to keep a constant watch on the sprouts arising on the rootstock, which are to be nipped off as and when, observed, to encourage rapid growth of scion shoots.
3. Irrigation: The young tender seedlings are exacting in their water requirement. Proper and judicious irrigation is an important indicator of a healthy nursery, which solves many problems in the nursery. There are many methods adopted in nurseries. However, it depends upon water availability, kind of nursery plants and its growth stage, etc. These methods are flow or flood irrigation, furrow irrigation, overhead irrigation through rose cans, automizers or sprinkler systems, etc.

Natural disasters like cyclone, earthquakes, flood etc. can happen suddenly and put everyone, including our pets, in danger. Taking care of your dog during such situation means being prepared, staying calm and knowing what to do. This article provides simple steps to help you care for your dog during a disaster.

Before a Disaster make an emergency plan

i. Find Safe Spots: Identify safe places in your home and community where you can go with your dog.

ii. Know evacuation routes: Plan different ways to leave your home in case one way is blocked and find pet-friendly shelters in your area.

iii. Emergency Contacts: Keep a list of important contacts, such as your vet, local animal control, and pet-friendly hotels.

Managing the care of a pregnant dog and supporting her through the whelping process requires careful attention, preparation, and understanding. Ensuring the health and safety of both the mother and her puppies is paramount. This article provides a comprehensive guide on how to care for a dog during pregnancy and whelping, including nutritional needs, veterinary care, creating a whelping area, and post-birth care.

Understanding Canine Pregnancy

Gestation Period

• The gestation period for dogs is approximately 63 days, though it can range from 58 to 68 days.

Signs of Pregnancy

• Early signs include increased appetite, slight weight gain, and changes in behavior such as increased affection.

• Around the fourth week, the abdomen may start to swell, and by the sixth week, noticeable weight gain and enlarged nipples are common.

6.1. Introduction

Care of cows at and after calving is vital for successful birth and maintaining the cow and calf in proper health condition. Calving is a high risk event in terms of both cow and calf health, and is associated with most of the health problems. New born calves are born sterile and it gets infection from the surroundings which depends on the maintenance of hygienic environment and care of the just after birth. The fresh cows are susceptible to a number of metabolic diseases and infections due decrease immune status of the cow. Preparation and care during this period will minimize sickness and death of the cow and calf.

7.1. Introduction

The lactating cows are important assets of a dairy farm. The profitability and viability of the dairy farm mainly depend on the overall milk production. The lactation cycle of the cow can be divided into different phases for efficient management as milk production, DM intake and body weight vary considerably during the different phases. In the early lactation, lactating animals loose body weight drastically and they are prone to various metabolic disorders. Efficient nutritional management during lactation is required to support the high milk production, persistency of lactation and health of the cows. Another most important event is the post partum oestrus and subsequent conception, which depends on the care and management of the cows during this period. Therefore, proper care and management of the lactating cows are essential to harvest maximum amount of milk from healthy cows in a sustainable way.

Calves play an important role in the dairy development and successful growth of young calves to mature stage is required for herd replacement and to get economic returns when they are sold. Good calf-care is important for sustenance of the dairy form and preservation and maintenance of good quality germplasm.

Trees are the largest plant components of gardens and landscapes. However much architectural features dwarf them, for human beings, they are the largest living entities in the environment. Profoundly influencing our habits, styles of habitation, culture and daily life, trees have been revered, sanctified and given symbolic importance and above all, depended upon as means of livelihood by entire communities through the ages. Through folklore, traditional knowledge and rituals, the usefulness of trees has been handed down from generation to generation-in societies all over the world. In India, cave paintings and carvings in addition to ancient literary works document the aesthetic and medicinal knowledge of our forefathers about trees found in the sub-continent.

Trees differ in stature, branching habit, girth of trunk and branches, canopy structure, outline and crown shape. The colour of the foliage, its texture, glaze, shape and size, foliage colour, floral features and season of flowering also differ among trees. These characteristics in addition to giving distinctiveness, also determine their ornamental use in gardens and landscapes. In tropical gardens evergreen dicotyledons and palms dominate among the trees, whereas in temperate situations evergreen conifers are selected over the deciduous dicots for tree planting. Palms among trees are universally grown as avenue trees or as clumps in areas where they can be easily grown while the other trees are grown as such or pruned and trained into various forms or as bonsai in gardens.

Introduction: Most young rabbits will be used for meat and skins; some will be kept for breeding. Whatever they are used for, the rabbit keeper will benefit if they are well cared for.

Handling of Rabbits: There will be times in any rabbitry when the animals will have to be picked up, e.g. when a doe is moved to a breeding hutch or when young rabbits are weaned.

When it is necessary to pick up a rabbit for any purpose, the aim should be to cause it no discomfort and to prevent it struggling. So it must be handled gently but firmly. There are three ways to hold a rabbit according to its size. 

1. INTRODUCTION

There are many countries surrounded by the waters of the Caribbean Sea. These countries vary widely in size, topography, ethnicity, language spoken, agricultural production systems, main sources of income, income levels and styles of governance, to name a few.

This analysis covers only the countries where English is spoken as the first language. These countries are linked through a grouping of Caribbean Communities, called CARICOM, an organization of 15 Caribbean nations and their dependencies. It starts with Jamaica in the North to Trinidad and Tobago in the South, but also includes Belize in Central America and Guyana and Suriname in South America. Although French speaking Haiti and Dutch speaking Suriname belong to CARICOM, they are not discussed because of the language barrier. The other French speaking islands (Guadeloupe and Martinique) and the Spanish speaking islands (mainly the Dominican Republic, Cuba and Puerto Rico) have different administrations for agricultural development. CARICOM countries stretching from the tip of Florida, USA, in the North to Venezuela in South America. CARICOM includes Belize in Central America and Guyana and Suriname in South America.

As dogs age, their needs change significantly, requiring adjustments in their care routine to ensure they remain healthy, comfortable, and happy in their golden years. Caring for a senior dog involves paying attention to their evolving physical and emotional needs, managing health issues proactively, and providing a supportive and nurturing environment. This article outlines the key aspects of caring for senior dogs, focusing on health and comfort.

Recognizing When Your Dog is a Senior

Dogs are generally considered seniors at around seven years old, although this can vary depending on breed and size. Larger breeds tend to age faster than smaller breeds. Signs of aging include graying fur, decreased energy levels, stiffness, and changes in behavior or appetite.

Health Care for Senior Dogs

Regular Veterinary Check-ups

Frequency: Increase the frequency of veterinary visits to at least twice a year. Regular check-ups can help detect and manage health issues early. Comprehensive Exams: Ensure the vet conducts comprehensive exams, including blood tests, dental check-ups, and screenings for common age related conditions such as arthritis, diabetes, kidney disease, and cancer.

Aphids: Myzus persicae : Aleyrodidae

Aphids are considered as the most serious pest of carnation. Both adults and nymphs suck sap from the leaves and debilitate the plants. They transmit carnation ring spot and carnation mosaic virus disease. They are thus more important as vectors. Regular monitoring for the incidence of the aphid and spot spray-ings of contact insecticides on the shoot tips can easily manage the pest.

Carnation is one of the important cut flower crops grown throughout the world and occupies prime position because of the attractive colour, shape and good vase life. Due to the excellent keeping quality, wide range of forms, ability to withstand long distant transportation and remarkable ability to rehydrate after continuous shipping, carnation is preferred by growers to roses and chrysanthemums in several flower exporting countries.

Although cut carnations are sold in western countries all the year round, they are in particular demand for the Valentines Day, Easter, Mothers Day and Christmas. While standard carnations are in great demand, the miniature types are fast gaining popularity for their potential role in floral arrangement and also as cut flower at comparatively low price. White and pink standard carnations are in the greatest demand followed by red, yellow and bicolour. The liking for a colour depends upon the time or season. The re standard types are preferred to other colours, especially during the Christmas. In contrast in miniatures, the terminal flower bud is pinched to encourage clusters of short-stemmed small flowers. These types are mainly used for flower arrangement. (Bhatt, 1989)

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) is a member of the family Caryophyllaceae. Dianthus word was first coined by Theophrastus from Greek word “dios” meaning divine and “anthos” meaning flower. It is a half hardy, perennial plant, propagated commercially by terminal cuttings. It is being produced as a cut flower in the world. Carnation cut flower trade contributed about 15% of the world flower market. Till now, new carnation varieties have been produced mainly through conventional breeding method. The breeding procedure typically consists of hybridization, self-pollination and selection (Holly and Baker, 1992). The breeding programme did not get enough momentum due to heterozygosity, limited gene pool and inadequate knowledge of genetic make up. However genetic engineering and molecular breeding have opened the way to achieve novel colour and good vase life of flowers.