eChapters

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) is a member of the family Caryophyllaceae. Dianthus word was first coined by Theophrastus from Greek word “dios” meaning divine and “anthos” meaning flower. It is a half hardy, perennial plant, propagated commercially by terminal cuttings. It is being produced as a cut flower in the world. Carnation cut flower trade contributed about 15% of the world flower market. Till now, new carnation varieties have been produced mainly through conventional breeding method. The breeding procedure typically consists of hybridization, self-pollination and selection (Holly and Baker, 1992). The breeding programme did not get enough momentum due to heterozygosity, limited gene pool and inadequate knowledge of genetic make up. However genetic engineering and molecular breeding have opened the way to achieve novel colour and good vase life of flowers.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

It is native of Mediterranean region and its distribution is restricted to Greece, Italy, Sicily and Sardinia (Tutin et al., 1993). According to Pliny, the centre of origin of carnation is Spain. The generic name Dianthus comes from writing of the Theophrastus who lived about 300 BC; dios, divine and anthos, flower; the flower of the gods. The species name caryophyllus is coined from Greek word Caryon, nut and phyllon, leaf. Linnaeus chose the species name, caryophyllus, after the genus of clove, as the fragrance from carnation is reminiscent of clove. The common word carnation probably comes from a Greek word coronation because of its use as decorating the crowns of Greek athletes during ancient times. Carnation has been cultivated for over 2000 years and today commercial cultivation is the result of 200 years of improvement and breeding. During sixteenth century its improvement work was started in various countries. The gardens of Italy, France, Germany, Holland and England have contributed much to the development of cultivars. The natural climates for carnation occur near 30^o N or S latitudes of equator and on the western edges of the continents.

INTRODUCTION

Carnation is one of the most beautiful and commercially important flower crop. It occupies prime position in the international cut flower trade and is a good commercial cut flower for internal market as well. Carnation flower can easily withstand long distance transportation as it has an excellent kee in ualit Its cut flowers with a 70 to 90 cm stem length, healthy and bright flower commands a better price. Carnations have a sweet fragrance and also commercially utilized for extraction of oil in France and the Netherlands. The volatile oil of carnation contain 40% benzyl benzoate, 30% eugenol, 7% phenylethyl alcohol, 5% benzyl salicylate and 1% methyl salicylate. It is used only in sophisticated perfumes. Carnation flowers round the year and have wider colour range like red, salmon, pink, purple, yellow, orange, bicolour, stripped, white and fancy combinations. The major break through in carnation flower industry was evolvement of cultivar William Sim. This cultivar was produced in 1938 to 1939 by William Sim of the USA. From this red variety there have been mutations to white, pink, orange and different variegated forms. The first genetically modified carnation variety Moon Dust is released in Australia by a plant biotechnology company Florigene. There are several distinct types of carnations and each of these can be grown in cooler parts of the plains and at medium to higher elevation. Carnations are cultivated under glasshouses in temperate countries and in the open or in semi-protected conditions under polythene cover, in both tropical and sub-tropical regions. Because of strong emphasis on quality in both export and domestic market, commercial production of spray and standard carnations is considered as a crop of protected conditions. Before being planted in the greenhouse, the crop must be carefully planted so that it will meet the demands of the international markets.

Abstract: Carnation, is one of the commercial flower crops of the world. There are many forms of carnations, which are excellent for cut flowers, bedding pots, edging and rock gardens. The history of crop improvement and development is highlighted. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of novel phenotypes particularly standards (Sims), sprays, midis, annual, picotees, perpetual, chabaud, malmaison, multiflora, microcarnations, etc. Continuous breeding and improvement of carnation focus on floral fragrance, floral doubleness, dwarf stature, high growth rate, floral colour, reduced calyx splitting, floral longevity and disease resistance. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern carnation breeders. Numerous genes have been identified and being used to create transformants. Wonderful results achieved through interspecific hybridization, mutation and polyploid breeding are discussed. Poor pollen production, inbreeding depression, linkage between traits, limited gene pool, inadequate seed production, reproductive barriers often pose significant challenges to breeders. Crop ideotypes prescribe numerous traits for incorporation by flower breeders and geneticists, including straight stem, symmetrical flower shape/ form, early/ uniform flowering with high productivity, enhanced shelf life and resistance to physiological disorders and various diseases.

Introduction

Carnation is one of the most beautiful and commercially important flower crops. It occupies prime position in the international cut flower trade and is a good commercial cut flower for internal market as well. Carnation flower can easily withstand long distance transportation as it has an excellent keeping.

The major breakthrough in carnation flower industry was evolvement of cultivar William Sim. This cultivar was produced in 1938 to 1939 by William Sim of the USA. From this red variety there have been mutations to white, pink, orange and different variegated forms.

The first genetically modified carnation variety Moondust was released in Australia by Florigene Company. They release another transgenic variety, i.e., Moonshadow.

In India carnation is grown intensively in Nasik, Pune, Srinagar, Bangaluru, Coimbatore, Delhi and Kolkata. Places having congenial climate like Kalimpong, Simla, Solan, Kullu, Ooty, Nainital, Chaubattia, Yercaud, Kodaikanal, etc. are most suitable areas for the production of cut flowers. From Himachal Pradesh and Ooty, rooted cuttings are supplied by the growers to the different parts of the country.

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) is one amongst the commercially important cut flowers traded worldwide. The genus Dianthus has about 300 species of annual, biennial and perennial herbs of which Dianthus caryophyllus is the most important species commercially. The genus Dianthus in Greek means ‘Flower of Zeus’ or ‘Divine Flower’. Linnaeus chose the species name, caryophyllus, after the genus of Clove, as the fragrance from carnation is reminiscent of clove. It is genetically a quantitative long day plant based on its photoperiod requirement (Blake, 1955). The Dianthus species are adapted to the cooler Alpine regions of Europe and Asia and are also found in Mediterranean coastal regions. Carnations were the first flowers to be cultivated on commercial scale in high altitude areas of tropics for export to Europe and North America.

It is cultivated throughout the world. The largest growing areas of carnation are in Bogota and Colombia. Carnation is also grown in Italy, Spain, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Canary Islands, France, Holland, Germany, Israel and USA. In India, main production areas are located around Pune and Bangalore. It is also being grown in Solan, Shimla, Mandi, Kullu, Chamba, Sirmour, Bilaspur and Hamirpur districts of Himachal Pradesh. As per the State Department of Horticulture - Himachal Pradesh, carnation occupied 44.07 hectares out of 705.77 hectare total area under floriculture in the state during 2018-19. The acreage of carnation is still expected to increase because of the favourable climatic conditions for its cultivation in different parts of Himachal Pradesh and other hilly states of the country.

In India, depending upon the regions, there is a wide difference in temperature, light intensity and humidity which not only affect the yield and quality of the flowers but also limit their availability for a particular period of the year. To produce quality flowers, carnation needs to be grown under cover, that is, in greenhouse which provides the plants with the optimum condition of light, temperature, humidity and carbon dioxide for proper growth and to achieve maximum yield of best quality flowers. Though, there are different types of the greenhouses, naturally ventilated polyhouses are preferred in mild climate in which temperature is reduced by ventilation (Ryagi et al., 2007).

Carnation is one of the world's most important commercial cut flowers and is extensively produced under protected conditions for domestic and export markets. This chapter examines its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics, types and commercially important varieties. It describes protected cultivation, greenhouse design, climate management, soil, propagation, planting, irrigation, fertigation, pinching, disbudding, staking and growth regulation. Major pests and diseases, harvesting, grading, postharvest handling, vase life and yield are also discussed. The chapter incorporates modern cultivars, disease-resistant varieties and genetically modified colour developments, making it valuable for contemporary commercial carnation production and floriculture education

This chapter introduces carnation as an important commercial cut flower requiring controlled environmental conditions for producing long, straight and high-quality stems. It discusses varieties, propagation, planting, irrigation, nutrition and cultural practices such as pinching, disbudding, deshooting and plant support. The chapter also addresses plant growth regulators, pest and disease management, harvesting, grading, storage and postharvest handling. Emphasis is placed on protected cultivation practices that improve flower quality, yield and market value.

Study of Carpentry Hand Tool

Introduction

The process of making the wooden components is called carpentry. Carpentry deals with the mechanical work of making wood components such as making beds, roofs, wardrobes, tables, cases, utensils, floors, etc. It manages the structure work, furniture, cabinet making and so on joinery, i.e., preparation of joints is one of the significant activities in all wood works.

The products produced are used in making furniture, musical instruments, and building constructions like doors, windows, desks, chairs, cupboards, etc., of a place utilizing a specific kind of wood with the help of tools known as carpentry tools. Different wooden pieces are connected to make a useful product. Wood is used to make furniture, boxes, doors, windows, industrial floors, stairs, pencils etc.

Indication: Irreparable damage of metacarpal bone.

Fia.1. Left carous and adjacent bones of Ox: Front view:-

Ulna

Radius

Fused second and tliird carpals

Ulnar carpal

Radial carpal

Fourth carpal

Fused second and third carpals

Metacarpal tuberosity

Vascular groove

???????Intermediate carpal bone

Carrot (Daucus carota Stova condolle) is one of the most important and widely used root vegetable belonging to the family Umbelliferae. The seed production can be done during September – October in plains and in hills the sowing takes place in June and roots are replanted during the first week of October.

Method of seed production

Carrot is a cross-pollinated crop and self-pollination occurs to the extent of 0-5%. Crosspollination is mainly through insects. Seeds should be allowed to set by cross-pollination in isolation. Seed production is done by seed to seed and root to seed method. In seed to seed method, the matured roots are left to produce flowers and seeds in the place where seeds are sown initially. In root to seed method, roots at edible maturity should be uprooted and the roots of true to varietal characteristics should be selected and transplanted to the well prepared field after proper trimming of roots and shoots. This root to seed method is preferred for seed production in carrot since the root rot infection is high in seed to seed method of seed production.

The isolation distance maintained between the fields of other varieties and the fields of the same variety not conforming to varietal purity requirements for certification is 1000 metres for foundation and 800 metres for certified seed production. During mother root production an isolation of 5 metres should be followed.

Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is a cool season root vegetable and temperature is the important factor affecting root shape and colour, besides soil type and moisture content of soil. It provides an excellent source of vitamin A and fiber in the diet. The genus Daucus, which include carrot, has many wild forms that grow mostly in the Mediterranean region and South West Asia. Representatives are found in Africa, Australia, & North America. For Daucus carrot L. it is generally agreed that Afghanistan is the primary center of genetic diversity and therefore the primary source for dissemination. Asia Minor, Afghanistan, North West India, Iran and Turkey are the centers of origin of carrot. Banga (1957& 1963) has provided evidence that the purple (anthocyanin) carrot together with a yellow variant spread from Afghanistan to Mediterranean area as early as 10th and 11th century. It is known in Western Europe in 14th and 15th century, China in 14th century and Japan in 17th century. The European carrot (Carotene carrot) derived from the Asiatic (anthocyonin containing) form of carrot (tropical carrot).  Afghanistan is the centre of diversity of the purple coloured carrot (anthocyanin). Integration of Asiatic and European carrots has given the present day forms. The yellow coloured (carotene rich) forms were also thought as mutants of anthocyanin carrots. The yellow mutants were traced in Asia Minor in 10 and 11th centuries, Spain in 12th century, North Western Europe in 14th century and England by 15th century.  The crop was introduced to China during 14th century and to Japan during 17th century. D. carota and D. sativus are only cultivated species of the genera with Chromosome No. 2n = 18. All forms have same chromosome number. 

Carrot (Daucus carota, 2n = 2x = 18, family Apiaceae or Umbelliferae, cross-pollinated) is among the top ten most economically important vegetable crops globally in terms of area, production and market value (Simon et al, 2008). Almost half of the more than 42 million tons of the global production -by far- is harvested in China, followed by Uzbekistan, Russia and the United States of America. Ukraine, Poland, United Kingdom, Germany, France and Japan complete the top 10.This production comes from approximately an area of 1.5 million ha giving a productivity of 28 tons/ha. India produced 1.6 million tons of carrot during 2017-18 from 96000 ha area resulting into a productivity of 16.66 tons/ha. In India, top 7 states in carrot production are Haryana, Bihar, Punjab, MP, UP, Karnataka and Assam. Because of breeding of cultivars adapted to both summer and winter seasons, carrot is available round the year.

The conventional orange colour varieties of Europe are rich in beta carotene, a precursor of vitamin A and contain appreciable quantity of thiamine and riboflavin. The red carrots are rich in lycopene, an important pigment for healthy eyes and general body growth, besides having anti-cancerous properties. Black carrots are rich in anthocyanins. Further, carrots have medicinal properties.

Carrot has two distinct groups with regard to flowering and seed production. These are tropical and temperate types. Tropical or oriental cultivars are annual and adapted to high temperature conditions and these do not require low temperature exposure for flowering. They flower and set seeds freely in Indian plains after winter months with the advent of long day conditions in spring. The temperate/European types behave like biennial crops and require 6-8 weeks of vernalization at mean temperature of 4.8 to 10° C after they have passed the full root development phase for production of seed stalks (Sureja and Kalia, 2012).

Carrot, Daucus carota L. under the family Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) having chromosome numbers 2n = 2x = 18 is a root vegetable, grown in spring, summer and autumn in temperate regions and during winter in tropical and sub-tropical regions all over the world. It is important root crop of the European countries, USA, China, Japan, Korea and India. It is grown in almost all parts of India, both in plains and hills. Most of the carrots are typically orange in colour, though purple, black, red, white and yellow cultivars are also available. It is consumed fresh as salad or cooked as vegetable. It is also used for fresh juice, pickles and for the preparation of sweets. Leaves are used as fodder. Essential oil from the seeds is used for flavouring liquors and foods. It contains highest amount of β carotene (pro-vitamin A) among the common vegetables. It is also a good source of vitamin K, and vitamin B6.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Carrot probably originated in Afghanistanin, the region where the Himalaya and Hindukush mountains are confluent. The secondary centres of diversity are probably Ehiopia and north America. Its domestication occurred in Afganistan and adjacent regions of Russia, Iran (previously called Persia), India, Pakistan and Anatolia (Van der Vossen and Sambas, 1993). From its centre of origin in Afghanistan, it was taken by the Arabs to eastern Mediterranean and Spain in 12th century. It was introduced in China in 13th or 14th century, in England during 15th century, in Japan in early 17th century and in the USA in 1620 AD.

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety entered into force on 11 September 2003. It is a legally binding international agreement under the United Nations’ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

What is a protocol ?: A protocol is a binding international instrument, separate from, but related to, another treaty. It is a separate instrument, that must be individually negotiated, signed and eventually ratified. It is only binding on States that become parties to it. It thus has its own parties, and creates separate rights and obligations for them, as any other treaty.

The unique characteristic of a protocol is that it is related to a ‘parent’ treaty, through substantive, procedural, and institutional links. Most importantly, a protocol under a specific treaty must comply with the parent treaty’s provisions authorizing and regulating the adoption of protocols under its auspices. 

Introduction

On 29 January 2000, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted a supplementary agreement to the Convention known as the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. It establishes an advance informed agreement (AIA) procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory. The Protocol contains reference to a precautionary approach and reaffirms the precaution language in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. The Protocol also establishes a Biosafety Clearing-House to facilitate the exchange of information on living modified organisms and to assist countries in the implementation of the Protocol.

Cartography has much back history than what we seen in portable form by its name or definition. Many prehistoric painting of caves had their own time frame record of maps, artifacts and design have been preserved hoping that they are sufficient to the era of forgotten habit and culture, and treasure explicit ancient world. The ancient wall painting of seventh millenium BC, might have indication of oldest maps in the world and the painting is assumed to be the location of ancient city Antolia as Mellaart, depicted 1967. Onward 600 BC, the modern form of cartography started to develop map. The pioneer contribution in map designing and development, old Greek and Roman were main contributor in this direction. One Greek Philoshopher Ptolemmy, multi-talented genius are recalled in this context, who later credited with first documented map of world during production of Geographica, is a treatise on cartography, very soon one Arabian Scholar Muhammad Al-Idrisi prepared a medieval Atlas involving knowledge of world collected by Arabic merchants in 1154.

It is represented by about 100 genera and over 2,200 species which are either annual or perennial, Caryophyllaceae are cosmopolitan in distribution, and mainly found in the north temperate or warm temperate regions of the world. Over 20 genera and about 100 species have so far been reported from India. Some of the larger genera, along with their common names and number of species in parenthesis include Silene (catchfly, 500), Dianthus (carnation, 300), Arenaria (sandwort, 250), Gypsophila (baby’s breath, 125), Stellaria (chickweed, 100), Cerastium (mouse-ear chickweed, 100), Drymaria (50), Spergula (40), Saponaria (30), etc.
Carnation, commonly named as ‘Divine flower’, ‘Clove pink’, and ‘Gilly flower’, is one of the most beautiful and commercially important flower crops of the world. It is excellent for cut flowers, bedding, pots, edging and rock gardens due to its exquisite shape, wide range of colours, light weight and good vase life. In Europe and USA, perpetual carnation is cultivated on large scale in greenhouses for production of cut flowers. In terrain parts of France and Holland, carnation flowers are used for perfume extraction and only light coloured flowers are useful for this purpose.
Description of Family
1. General habit: Mostly annual or perennial herbs, rarely suffrutescent shrubs; arctic forms are reduced and possess caespitose habit.
2. Stem: Herbaceous; rarely with a basal woody part; nodes swollen; branching usually dichotomous but sometimes monopodial.

Climate-resilient rural development is a critical priority for CMCs, given their vulnerability to climate change impacts such as floods, droughts, cyclones, and rising temperatures. This note explores case studies and success stories from some of the CMCs, highlighting innovative approaches, community- driven initiatives, and policy interventions that enhance climate resilience in rural areas. The examples draw from documented projects, emphasizing practical outcomes and lessons learned. Case studies of specific CMCs 1. Bangladesh: Saemaul Zero Hunger Communities (SZHC) Project In central Bangladesh, the Saemaul Zero Hunger Communities (SZHC) project (2014-2017) focused on 19 flood-prone villages to strengthen resilience to climate shocks and improve food security (UNDP, 2018). Implemented in collaboration with local communities

A. Case study: Breeding for disease resistance and yield improvement in Black pepper (Piper nigrum)
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is one of the most important spice crops globally, often referred to as the “King of Spices.” However, its production is frequently threatened by various diseases, particularly Phytophthora foot rot, which can cause significant yield losses. Over the years, extensive breeding efforts have focused on developing disease-resistant and high-yielding varieties of black pepper.
1. Background
• Primary disease concern: Phytophthora foot rot (caused by Phytophthora capsici) is a major disease affecting black pepper, leading to root and stem rot, defoliation, and ultimately, plant death. Other diseases include slow
decline (caused by nematodes and fungal pathogens) and viral infections.
• Yield challenges: The average yield of black pepper is relatively low, primarily due to the susceptibility of many traditional varieties to diseases and pests, along with poor management practices and climatic challenges.
2. Objectives of breeding programs
• Disease resistance: To develop varieties resistant to Phytophthora foot rot and other significant diseases.
• Yield improvement: To increase the overall productivity of black pepper plants, focusing on higher berry yield, larger berries, and better quality.
• Quality enhancement: To maintain or improve the quality of black pepper in terms of essential oil content, piperine content, and other flavour components.
 

14.1 Introduction

As discussed above, the development discourse on women nationally and internationally moved from Women in Development (WID) to Gender and Development (GAD) and Women's Empowerment. This was reflected in the Government Plans and Policy Documents throughout the past six decades. Since independence, many schemes have been launched for the emancipation of women in the country.

The social welfare method was superseded by the development strategy in the Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-1979). This acknowledged the contribution and productive role of women. With its emphasis on work, education, and health, the Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980-1985) marks a turning point in the history of women's growth. The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985-1990) prioritized projects aimed at improving women's status.

6.1 Introduction
The success of design thinking depends on its applicability in industries and service organization. The applications of design thinking applied to product development should focus on the needs of users. The design thinking can also be applied to design new processes as well as improve an existing process.
6.2 Case Studies
The section presents several case studies of applying design thinking in realities as listed below.
1. Design thinking in eye care
2. Design thinking in foundry
3. Design thinking in FMG company
4. Design thinking in auto industry
5. Design thinking at retail outlet
6. Design Thinking in Flight Reservation System
7. Design thinking in winding fabric on roller in textile mill
6.2.1 Case study: Design Thinking in Eye Care
Eye care is a crucial part of health care system. There are many factors that are responsible for poor eye vision. Normally in the early stages, viz. children and adults up to 40 or 45 years of age may have eye power issues, which are managed

Livelihood enterprises associated with farming encompass a diverse range of activities that support agricultural income, enhance food security, and provide sustainable livelihoods for farming communities. Below are several case studies from different regions and types of farming-related enterprises:
1. Organic Vegetable Farming in India
• Location: Karnataka, India
• Enterprise Type: Organic farming
• Synopsis: A group of farmers transitioned from conventional agriculture to organic farming, focusing on high-value crops like tomatoes, bell peppers, and leafy greens. They formed a cooperative to share resources,
equipment, and knowledge.
• Impact: By adopting organic practices, farmers increased their income by 30-50% due to higher market prices for organic vegetables. The cooperative also created a direct supply chain to urban markets, reducing dependence on middlemen.
2. Beekeeping as a Supplementary Enterprise in East Africa
• Location: Kenya
• Enterprise Type: Beekeeping

In order to portray the conditions of the migrated rural youth in cities, who otherwise would have been practicing agriculture, a few case studies were conducted to know more about the migrated rural youth, their family background, reasons for migrating, satisfaction after migration, type of support given to the family at the villages, assets created at their village and in the cities, types of problems faced, opinion about the environment, and willingness to go back to their villages for continuing farming. The sample included migrated persons engaged in different jobs in Bangalore city as Hotel workers, Construction Workers, Auto Drivers / Taxi drivers, Security Guards, Garment workers and Vegetable/Fruit Vendors. From each category, five respondents were interviewed by using a simple questionnaire. Following are the case studies.

I. Case Studies on Migrated Rural Youth Working as Building Construction Workers

1. Case of Sri Krishnappa : Muttanna, V.L. Madhuprasad and D. Nanjappa

Sri. Krishnappa S/o Saranappa, aged 30 years from Surapur taluk, Yadagiri district had migrated to Bangalore as a construction labourer. He had completed his primary education and got married at an early age. He has two sons and  two daughters.  After marriage, he continued to live in a pucca house along with his parents, one brother and two sisters.  The family has two acres of dry land, and  farming is main occupation. Desire to earn more money by him and non  co-operation among members of his family are the reasons for Sri Krishnappa’s migration.

1. Success Story of Rural Youth in Dairying
 
M.S. Nataraju, P. Sunil Kumar and R. Shashidhar

There is a proverb in Kannada that “Koti Vidyeginthaloo Meti Vidyee Yee Melu” means - among all the professions for livelihood on this earth agriculture is the best profession for better livelihood.  This proverb suits Sri. Vasudeva Indraje, resident of Yenmoor village in Sulliya Taluk of Dakshina Kannada Dist. in Karnataka State. Sri. Vasudeva Indraje is a role model for today’s youth, who are neglecting agriculture and migrating to cities with an illusion of making a quick buck.  Hailing from an agricultural family his moorings was in agriculture and allied activities.  After passing out from SSLC he did not seek to continue the studies but showed interest in pursuing some small business.  Along with his younger brother he started a cold drink house in Balila and made good profit from it.  When it appeared that the business was seeing a downward trend he came out of the business and invested the money in farming land.

Sri. Vasudev along with his friend visited RUDSETI, Ujire and enquired about the training programmes. After going through his interests Director suggested him to apply for Dairy and Vermicompost training programme.  Later, he was selected and undergone Dairy and Vermicompost training programme in the year 2007.  During his training programme along with the technical inputs regarding the Dairy management he also learnt about different soft skills like how to develop entrepreneurship competencies? How to develop Self Confidence? How to avail Institutional Credit? etc.

Planning Research and Action Institute, Lucknow (1960) found that lack of initial capital considerably hindered the growth of Animal Husbandry Projects in Youth Clubs. It was also revealed that involvement of non-official agencies and training of youth organizers were very important for strengthening youth clubs.
Singh and Prasad (1963) identified that following deficiencies in the working of youth clubs.
    1.    Inadequate knowledge of youth club work on the part of members as well as on leaders
    2.    Non-availability of literature on youth clubs
    3.    Lack of active leadership‘
    4.    Rift between village youth clubs and village panchayat
    5.    Lack of proper guidance and follow up of youth club programme
Behniwal (1964) revealed the following factors as responsible for the successful working of youth clubs.
    1.    Strength of membership in a club 
    2.    Participation in project work
    3.    Participation in games
    4.    Frequency of meetings
    5.    Attendance in tours, rallies and games
    6.    Actual gains received  
Kumar (1965) found that in the successful clubs the youth had clear conception of the importance and objectives of the youth organization. 

21.1 Introduction

The industrial revolution, which began in the early 18th century in some countries of Europe, set in motion new forces in the environment and greatly changed the pattern of social life. Rapid industrialization and urbanization subsequently brought many changes in the environment and ecosystem. India also witnessed a phenomenon of industrial growth in the post independent era. Progress in the industrial development in Tamil Nadu during recent past is appreciable. New industries developed, existing industries expanded and new technologies are introduced.

In India, the past decades have witnessed population explosion and increase in per capita consumption of food and consumer goods. These have led to the proportionate increase in the domestic and industrial wastes. The waste is continuously increasing at an alarming rate. By the end of this century, India’s population is likely to increase from the present level of 700 million to about billion. Similarly the per capita consumption of food has been estimated to increase by 40% resulting in double production and disposal of industrial and domestic wastes (Manivanan, 2004).

Apart from the quantitative increase there will be also a qualitative change in the waste product, which are likely to contain greater amount of oil, toxic chemicals, detergents and dyes. A large number of these compounds are non-degradable and are cumulative, thus rendering the toxic products. Certain group of plants like algae and bacteria are selective in their functions and can executive certain toxic chemicals and heavy metals. The microorganism communities are helping in effective recycling of industrial effluents.

The government is taking serious efforts to keep the production of toxic substances under strict control at production centers. It carefully watches the efforts that are made to discharge the toxic waste from industries within the permissible limits and usages of toxic chemicals within the prescribed limits. The majority of rural population being uneducated is prone to excessive use of water which has become pollutant. The pollutant ultimately is drained into the natural aquatic environment, the rivers and the oceans. A part of these wastes are recycled and they again enter the food chain and cause detrimental effects to human health. Thus in nature, long and short term chain reactions are continuously in progress and these are required to be understood. Even when the best available yardsticks are applied to conserve the environment. It is a stupendous task to enforce these regulations.

In addition to production of more waste the coming years will see a qualitative change in the composition of waste. These wastes are likely to contain greater amount of toxic chemicals, detergents, non-degradable products based on hydrocarbons, and its derivatives. Large amount of wastes which are non degradable and cumulative in nature produce a series of new and complex problems. Therefore, alternative methods should develop for treatment and disposal of cumulative and nondegradable chemicals and pollutants.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics of the socio-economic and communication characteristics of the respondents in terms of Range (Minimum and Maximum), Mean, Standard Deviation (SD) and Coefficient of Variation (CV) of Alluvial Zone in West Bengal

Table 1 Represents the distribution of variables in terms of range i.e. maximum and minimum values, mean, standard deviation and coefficient of variation for alluvial zone of West Bengal.

It has been found that for the independent variable age (x₁), the range lies between 82 and 27 years, where the oldest respondent is of 82 years and the youngest respondent being 27years old. The mean value of the age of the respondents in this study was found to be 51.49 years with a standard deviation of 12.42 in the dataset. Coefficient of variation for this variable was found to be 24.14 per cent, which indicates a high level of consistency in the distribution.

Easykrishi is a young enterprise that uses digital interventions with an aim to change agricultural practices from Reactive Mode to Proactive Mode. It is a consortium of 12 FPOs and 150 Ground Organizations. 14 In a world of declining land-holdings, we realize aggregation of agricultural resources is the only way to keep this planet sustainable for human survival. Aggregation ensures viability and profitability of Agriculture. Easykrishi’s baby steps in the entire cycle of aggregation of agricultural resources have made significant impact for Food Producer Corporations across Karnataka and they have made a mark on organizations and individuals that are dedicated for the betterment of Agriculture and farmers.

Introduction

Livestock and livestock products are an important source of food nutrition and livelihood security. Animal origin foods are an important source of high quality protein and micronutrients compared to cereals and plant-based foods. Production of animal- based foods has grown dramatically over the past two decades. Meat, Milk and Egg consumption has grown rapidly in east and Southeast Asia over past twenty years. The greatest increase in the production and consumption of animal-origin foods, as a result of rising incomes and dietary diversification away from staple cereals, has taken place in East and Southeast Asia. World meat markets reveal that the production and trade of bovine meat, poultry meat, pig meat and ovine meat are significant unlike rabbit meat. In spite of many advantages in rabbit farming and rabbit meat, the rabbit meat is less consumed when compared to other meat. So the objective was to study the farmer who involved in rabbit farming.

Involvement of Farm Youth in the developmental sector of Agriculture is emerging as a crucial area for the water management sector. Initiative of Farm Youth is essential for accelerating modern Agricultural technologies to be adopted by the large number of farmers in the rural area. Being an educated, effective use of the information & communication   technology (ICT) is possible. The recent developments in the field of Agriculture like, green-house technology, exporting vegetables and fruits to outside country, formation of agricultural producer’s company etc. are the challenging areas where the Farm Youth can develop a leading role for the farming community.
 
Maharashtra, being a progressive State, encourages Farm -Youth activities in various fields to boost-up the younger generation to participate in the information and communication technology (ICT) areas. As a result of Govt. initiative, in the field of Participatory Irrigation Management, the Water Users Association, namely, ‘Mahatma Phule Water Users Association’ At Post: Ozar (Mig), Taluka: Niphad, Dist: Nasik was successfully run by a Farm Youth namely, Mr. Govardhan Rajabhau Kulkarni who is an idol for the Farm Youths to participate in the irrigation water management field. The use of internet, e-mail, agriculture related web sites and developing software programmes for irrigation management is highly appreciated by the Govt. of Maharashtra.

I. Case Study Framework: Agri-Sector Startups
This framework focuses on analyzing the startup’s value proposition, execution, and impact within the agricultural landscape.
A. Start-ups Profile
1. Name and Location: (e.g., “Agbotic, New York, USA”)
2. Founding Date and Team: (Key founders, their backgrounds, and relevant experience in agriculture, technology, or business). Highlight the team’s expertise and any advisory boards.
3. Mission and Vision: What problem are they solving? What is their longterm goal for transforming agriculture?
4. Legal Structure: (e.g., LLC, Corporation)
5. Funding History: Seed rounds, Series A, venture capital, grants, bootstrapping. Identify key investors and the amount raised.
6. Stage of Development: (e.g., Ideation, Seed, Early Growth, Scaling)
B. Value Proposition
1. Problem Addressed: Clearly define the specific challenge in agriculture that the startup is tackling. (e.g., labor shortages, inefficient irrigation, lack of market access for small farmers, food waste, soil degradation).
2. Solution Offered: Describe the startup’s product or service. Be specific about how it works. (e.g., AI-powered yield prediction software, robotic harvesting systems, a mobile platform connecting farmers to buyers, a  bio-fertilizer product).

1. Precision Agriculture
Example: Farmers Edge
Farmers Edge offers a comprehensive suite of solutions for farmers, utilizing data analytics, AI, and IoT (Internet of Things) technologies. The platform provides predictive analytics for crop health, soil quality, and weather, helping farmers make informed decisions.
• Impact: Improved yield and reduced resource wastage.
• Technology: Satellite imagery, data analytics, and machine learning.
2. Vertical Farming
Example: AeroFarms AeroFarms uses aeroponic technology to grow crops without soil, using 95% less water than traditional farming methods. They operate indoor farms that can produce high yields all year round, independent of climate conditions. • Impact: Increased food security in urban areas; fresh produce available year-round.
• Technology:Aeroponics, LED lighting, and climate control systems.
3. Supply Chain Optimization
Example: Example: AgroStar
AgroStar is a mobile platform connecting farmers with quality products and services, including fertilizers, pesticides, and seeds. They also provide guidance on best practices for crop management, enabling farmers to make better purchasing decisions.

Quantitative studies are preferred over qualitative studies for their relatively higher objectivity. But many of the times, complexities involved in the occurrence of phenomenon, its causes, and consequences demand for in-depth analysis of a single unit of study. Whenever we want to study a single unit in depth both qualitatively and quantitatively then case study is the best method of research. Case study is a best tool to use, when we are interested in exploring a new phenomenon on which there is very less scientific information available and also when we are interested in formulating new hypothesis for causal study.

Case taking in homeopathy is based on five themes such as Philosophy of Homeopathy, Materia Medica of Homeopathy, The case, Case Analysis and Case Management (Owen, 2007).

Themes

i. Philosophy – Clinical practice of homeopathy is based on the principles and key concepts of homeopathy as detailed in Chapter 2 and 12.

ii. Materia Medica- It is in the core of understanding of the practice of homeopathy providing the information how the remedy pictures are developed and expressed in different ways. It allows the practitioner to understand the patient and prescribe rationally.

iii. The Case- The relationship between a homeopath (human /veterinary) and patient (animal or human) is in the center of the therapeutic process in case taking in homeopathy. It is more than a record of the consultation as case skills facilitate the level of revealing by the patient and the depth to which the homeopath perceives.

iv. Case Analysis- Case analysis allows the matching of what is perceived of the patient with what is known of the remedies. Case analysis governs the order, pattern and interpretation that emerge in the healing process. The variety of case analysis strategies and methodologies available to the homeopath is a major factor that determines the breadth of their clinical competence.

Introduction

India is well-known around the world for its rapid economic growth rates over the last fifteen years or so, fuelled in part by the spectacular growth in its export- oriented software and ICT-based services sector. Many other countries look to India as a model for global outsourcing and try to imitate elements of this in their own strategies (Carmel 2003; Heeks and Nicholson 2004). Success at a particular period of time does not, of course, guarantee its continuation and commentators have expressed concerns such as rising wage rates and skills shortages of ICT professionals (CACM 2007), and increasing competition from countries such as China (Negroponte 2003). It is likely, however, that India will remain a major player in the ICT industry for years to come and thus its global image as an ICT success story will continue. Viewed from a broader development perspective, things are not so simple. The new wealth that has arisen in India from the ICT boom benefits the relatively wealthy and educated in the first instance (Kambhampati 2002). Will this trickle down to the poor and uneducated? Statistics paint a mixed picture of the current situation. On the one hand, India is now the world’s fourth largest economy in purchasing power parity terms, and has enjoyed high growth rates for over a decade rising to an average of over 8% per annum in the period 2004-7 (World Bank 2007).

On the other hand, India was ranked as 128th out of 177 countries on the human development index 2005 (UNDP 2005) which is a composite index based on life expectancy, literacy and education levels, and economic standard of living. Shocking statistics include the percentage of malnourished children under 5 being 46%, the adult female literacy rate as only 48%, and the percentage of the rural population using adequate sanitary services as 18% (World Bank 2007, UNICEF 2004). A major development issue, therefore, is whether India can seriously address the needs of all of its people, including the vast numbers of poor and uneducated in the rural areas and the urban slums. A related sub-question is whether, and to what extent, can ICTs be used to provide development benefits to all Indian citizens. There are increasing attempts to use technology in this way through projects such as e-government services and telecentres in poor areas.

Botany: Cashew belongs to the Family Aricardiaceae. A small evergreen tree native of tropical America from Mexico to Peru and Brazil but now cultivated largely in Malabar, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and to some extend in Maharashtra, Goa, Odisha and West Bengal

The commercial production is mainly confined to India, Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya; Brazil, Philippines, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.Cashew is an important foreign earning crop of India, remarking second (29%) in the international trade of the nuts. It is a crop of marginal lands and can be grown under rainfed conditions.

Soil and climate: It grows up well in all soils. Red sandy loam is best suited. Plains as well as hill slopes upto 600 - 700 feet elevation are suitable for cultivation. Season: June - December. Propagation: Soft wood grafting, air layer and epicotyl grafting. Requirement of plants: 200 plants/ha. Preparation of field: Pits of 45 cm3 size are dug and filled up with a mixture of soil + 10 kg FYM + one kg neem cake and 100 g Methyl parathion 1.3 %.

Cashew apple, a highly potential nutritional source, is almost entirely wasted now. In Goa, cashew apple juice is fermented and distilled for production of alcohol. Cashew apple is juicy and swollen. It is a rich reserve of vitamins and minerals. The cashew apple is the peduncle of the nut. Normally the apple is 8 to 10 fold large by weight compared to cashew nut, at ripe stage. Cashew apples can be of different size and shape. The ripe apple is very juicy and fibrous with thin skin. When fully ripe, it gets detached from the pedicel and falls down. In Brazil, cashew is a popular fresh fruit and dwarf types are being evaluated to fulfil the market requirements of fresh cashew apple in terms of red colour, high sugar, low tannin etc.

Global Scenario

Globally, India’s share in the cashew area and production is 20 per cent and 16 per cent, respectively. India occupies the largest area followed by Ivory Coast (19%), Brazil (16%), Indonesia (12%), Vietnam (7%), Nigeria (7%), Benin (5%), Guinea-Bissau (5%), Mozambique (2%) and Philippines (1%). The highest production was from Vietnam (30%) followed by Nigeria (19%), India (16%), Ivory Coast (11%), Brazil (5%), Indonesia (3%), Philippines (3%), Guinea-Bissau (3%), Benin (2%) and Mozambique (2%). Sometimes back, India was credited as largest producer, processor and exporter of cashew in the world but as other cashew producing countries also acquired the know-how of processing and entered in the international market, currently the India’s share in the International market has shrank to 30 per cent only. On the other hand, the domestic consumption in India has increased considerably, owing to largest consumption of cashew kernel. Every year, over 7-8 lakh tonnes of raw cashew nut are imported mainly from African countries and exporting cashew kernel to USA and UK after processing (Saroj, 2013).

Pattern of Growth Flushes in a Bearing Tree

Two or three peak periods of growth are usually observed in a bearing cashew tree, even though under favourable conditions the stray shoot growth may occur almost every month. The pattern of growth of a bearing tree consists of a generative flower flush (reproductive) and a vegetative flush. The vegetative flush, consisting of lateral shoots, always develops soon after the main crop has matured. Flowering is terminal and is universally preceded by the vegetative flush.

There are two types of branching in cashew, intensive and extensive.

Brief History of Cashew Nut Processing Industry in India

As is known in the Cashew Trade Circles, cashewnut was not an indigenous product of India. A few hundred years back, the Portuguese brought it to Goa in India, from Brazil. The Portuguese also took it to their other colonies in Africa viz. Mozambique on the East Coast and Angola on the West Coast. In Mozambique, it spread all over the territory i.e. from Lourenco in the South to Ibo in the North and thence to British East Africa (now Tanzania) and Kenya. Though, now it is known as cashewnut, still in Mozambique and India, it is known by its original Portuguese name ‘CAJU’.

Botanical Name : Anacardium occidentale L.
Family : Anacardiaceae 
Origin : North East Brazil in Latin America. 
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=42
Type of fruit : Droup. 
Type of Inflorescence : Panicles (Both male and  hermaphrodite flowers occur on the same inflorescence)

The English name of cashewnut derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree, Caju. It is native to the coastal areas of north-eastern Brazil. It was introduced in Goa by the Portuguese in the 16th century mainly to control soil erosion and to use in afforestation programmes but now it has become an important cash crop of Goa. The fruit of the cashew tree is an oval or pear-shaped accessory fruit known as ‘cashew apple’ sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit which develops from the receptacle of the cashew flower.  The cashew nut is a popular snack with a rich flavour that is often eaten on its own, lightly salted or sugared. Cashew nuts are also sold covered in chocolate. In Goa, the cashew apple is mashed and juice is extracted and kept for fermentation to prepare beverage called fenny. 

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is popularly called the ‘Gold mine’ of wasteland. It’s presumed that cashew was originally introduced into India by Portuguese travelers within the sixteenth century mainly for checking erosion on the coast. Initially, it absolutely was considered as an acceptable crop for conservation, afforestation and wasteland development but gradually gained the commercial importance.

Area and Distribution

In India cashew is being grown in an area of 10.62 lakh hectares with total production of 8.17 lakh MT of raw nuts and unit area productivity of 753 kg/ha. India is that the largest producer of raw cashew contributing around 20 per cent of total production of the globe. The foremost distribution of cashew in India is within the states of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh and Orissa along the geographic region and a few extents within the states of state, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat and North East states. The assembly and productivity of the cashew is highest within the states of Maharashtra. The best average productivity of the Maharashtra is about 1318 kg/ha followed by West Bengal and Kerala in country. India is that the major exporter of cashew Kernels and earns a large amount of overseas exchange to the tune of `5,871 crores each year. The country exports cashew kernel to quite sixty countries mainly to USA, UAE, Netherlands, Saudi Arabia and Japan. A complete of 1.19 lakh MT of cashew kernels was exported to those countries additionally to other byproducts like cashew shell liquids etc. (Anonymous, 2017–18). India is also the second largest exporter of shelled cashew (kernels) in the world and follows Vietnam.

Cashew research in India dates back to 1950’s when Indian Council of Agricultural Research sanctioned ad-hoc schemes in the then composite Madras, Travancore, Cochin and Bombay States. Thus, Kottarakkara (Kerala) in 1952; Ullal (Karnataka in 1953 and Vengurla (Maharashtra) in 1957 came into being as pioneering cashew centres in the country. More research schemes were started with ICAR’s assistance in 1955 at Bapatla (Andhra Pradesh) and in 1956 at Deragaon (now shifted to Kothiali) in Assam. During the period, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore and National Chemical Laboratory, Pune were also engaged in developing technologies for economic utilisation of cashew apple and Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL). In the second phase of strengthening cashew research in India, the ICAR started All India Spices and Cashewnut Improvement Project in 1971 linking countrywide network among different research centres. Collection, conservation and evaluation of germplasm, hybridization and selection, vegetative propagation, and nutritional studies were the primary areas under this programme.

Maharashtra, the first state was to release cashew variety under the name Vengurla-1 through Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli in the year 1974. So far, 8 varieties have been released from Regional Fruit Research Station, Vengurla (M.S.), of which, Vengurla-4, Vengurla-6, Vengurla-7 and Vengurla-8 are widely accepted for commercial plantation.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is an export-oriented crop grown for its nuts, a true drupe. Often referred as ‘wonder nut’, it is highly delicious and nutritive. Its nutritional composition compares well with almond, hazel nut and walnut. It is a zero-cholesterol nut with high content of unsaturated fatty acids, proteins and carbohydrates with a right combination of amino acids, vitamins and minerals. Kernels extracted from nuts are often consumed as such or used in confectionery items and various kinds of dishes. Kernel oil of pale yellow colour is used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) extracted from its shell has many industrial applications - for making paints, resins, flame-retardants, etc. Testa covering the kernel, rich in tannin, can be an acceptable substitute for wattle bark tannin in leather industry. Cashew apple, the pseudo-fruit, is rich in vitamin C. It is used to cure scurvy, diarrhea, uterine complaints and dropsy.

The Tea mosquito bug : Helopeltis antonii : Miridae

The host range of this bug also includes tea, neem, moringa and guava. The attack can cause inflorescence blight, terminal drying of young shoots and heavy yield loss. The adult is a reddish brown bug with black head, red thorax, and black and white abdomen. The easiest identifying character for this pest is a pin like process on the scutellum mid dorsally on the thorax. It is reddish brown, erect and knobbed, and would seem as a pin inserted into the scutellum.

Genus : Anacardium 
Species : occidentale L.
Family : Anacardiaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n =42

This delicious nut fruit of family Anacardiaceae is unique in number of ways firstly for fruits brilliant shades of colour (yellow to dark red-scarlet) characteristic aroma makes it one of the most enticing of tropical fruits. Secondly it multiplies and grows very fast and produces in abundance its attractive handsome fruits. Thirdly the cashew fruit is very peculiar for at the first look the swollen peduncle and disc (cashew apple) is taken to be the real fruit, a fact which is not true. The real fruit of commerce is the kidney shaped nut attached to the lower portion of the cashew apple. The English name cashew is adapted from Portuguese word ‘Caju’. India is one of the major cashew producer and exporter.

• Cashew kernel contains 47% fat, 21% protein and 22% carbohydrates.
• Cashew kernel does not have cholesterol.
• Collection of fallen nuts is known as Gllining.
• India is the largest producer as well exporter of raw cashew nut.
• The USA is the largest importer of cashew nut kernels in the world.
• Cashew is restricted to altitude below 700 m where the temperature does not fall below 20°C for prolong period.
• pH more than 8.0 is not suitable for its commercial cultivation.
• Pruning period: August-September
• Steam method is the most popular method of roasting.
• Best quality whole kernels kernels are obtained from drum roasting.
• Maximum recovery of oil is done using oil bath roasting.
• Inflorescence: Polygamomonocious
• Cashew nut is the III most important agriculture commodity exported from India.
• Broma dryer is a commonly used drier for drying of the kernel.
• The moisture content of the dried kernelranges between 2% to 4%.