eChapters

3.1. Introduction

Food preservation can be defined as the science which deals with the process of prevention of decay or spoilage of food thus allowing it to be stored in a safe condition for future use. Scientifically, preservation may be defined as a science which deals with the process for prevention of decay. All foods gradually undergo deterioration or spoilage from the time they are harvested or manufactured. Some commodities spoil rapidly, while others can keep for longer but limited periods. Spoilage in the food products may be caused due to some physical, chemical and microbial changes during storage. The preservation of these products can be resulted by controlling following physical, chemical and microbial changes.

Horticulture deals with the art, science, business and technology of cultivation and management of horticultural plants. The word Horticulture is derived from two Latin words viz. ‘Hortus’ (means garden) and ‘Culture’ (means growing). Horticulture is an aesthetic science that deals with cultivation of fruit, vegetable, spice, plantation, medicinal, aromatic and flower crops. There is a vast therapeutic use of horticulture wherein gardening and aroma therapy are used to deal with new age maladies like depression and various addictions.

In ancient times, huge gardening spaces to grow large number of fruits, vegetables and flowers were available and these areas were demarcated with the help of high walls. This enclosed area was referred to as garden. This led to the term garden culture. The land area is decreasing due to industrialization and population growth, at the same time, there is a drastic increase in demand for horticultural produce. To meet the increased demand for horticultural produce and to cope up with the space constraints, multitier cropping systems, vertical gardening and other intensive cultivation practices are being resorted to. Hence, horticulture may also be described as the “Practice of growing and manipulating plants in a relatively intensive manner”.

Presently, fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamentals are grown not only within the home premises, but also in large quantities on a commercial scale. In other words, many horticultural crops throughout the world are grown primarily as business enterprises. Thus, horticulture has two aspects in general i.e., the amateur and the professional. In addition, with the establishment of horticultural experiment stations as an integral part of colleges and universities, comparatively a large amount of scientific information on the behaviour and cultivation of horticultural plants and products is freely available. This information or literature, constitutes the science of horticulture, and the application of this scientific information constitutes the “Technology of Horticulture.” Thus, present day horticulture may be defined as the science and technology of production, processing and merchandising of fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamentals where each crop has its own science and technology. Consequently, horticulture may appear differently to different people. To a teacher, professor, research scientist, extension official and landscape architect, it is an applied science and a profession, while to a commercial producer, wholesaler, a retailer of horticultural products, or to the manufacturers or seller of horticultural products, it is a business. It is also a fascinating hobby for connoisscur.

11.1 Introduction

In chapter 10, we have discussed the different types of variation, namely, genetic, environmental and genotype × environment interaction variations. We have also learnt how to estimate the phenotypic variance and its components including genotypic (also called genetic), environmental and g × e interaction variances from trial data. Now in this chapter, we shall discuss on the genetic components of polygenic (quantitative) variation and its implications on breeding strategies.

11.2 Genetic Components of Polygenic Variation

In this chapter whenever we call genetic variation, we mean polygenic (quantitative) variation, and we know that variation is usually measured in term of variance. However, variation, variability and variance are almost used synonymously. The genetic variance has been classified into different components by various workers. Fisher (1918) divided genetic variance into three components: additive, dominance and epistatic (interaction) variances. Wright (1935) classified genetic variance into two components: additive variance and non-additive variance (dominance and epistatic variances). Mather (1949) classified genetic variance into two components: heritable fixable variance (additive variance and additive × additive epistatic variance) and heritable non-fixable variance (dominance variance, and additive × dominance and dominance × dominance epistatic variances). Later, Hayman and Mather further divided the epistatic variance into three categories: additive × additive, additive × dominance and dominance × dominance.

Vegetables are of short duration, have higher productivity and give more return per unit area, besides giving nutritious food to human being and can be fitted in different farming systems. They also play a major role in balancing human diet, thereby helping in alleviating hunger, poverty and malnutrition. Because of the public awareness for the significance of vegetable consumption, the demand of vegetables in the global market has increased immensely. Thus, vegetable farming is becoming profitable venture globally, opening avenues of self employment and revenue generation (Anon., 2009). At global level, India holds second position, next only to China in vegetables production with a share of about 14%. The present annual vegetables production of country is about 175 million tons from an area about 10.3 million ha with a productivity of 17.1 t/ha. India grows largest number of vegetables in the world, as having a spectrum of wide range of agro-climatic situations, ranging from dry temperate to humid tropics between the altitudes from sea level to snow line.

The Indian hot arid region is one of the most important arid ecosystems of the world in terms of biodiversity it possesses. This arid region spreads over 31.7 mha, occupies major part of north western India including Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana, which together contribute 73% of arid region. High temperature, wind velocity, low humidity, low and erratic rainfall and high potential evapotranspiration are important characteristics of this region which narrowed down the choice for vegetables, besides permit their low productivity.

Since floricultural and ornamental crops are grown for aesthetic purpose and are non-edible there is likely to be less concern in bio safety issues compared to other food crops. Hence there is considerable potential for developing transgenics in ornamental crops. Advances in transgenic technology provide new opportunities for manipulation of the genome. These will have significant impact on expanding and diversifying the gene pool of crop plants, introducing specific genes and shortening the time required for the production of new varieties or hybrids. Molecular breeding is beneficial to increase the production and quality by creating plants with enhanced resistance to diseases, insects or viruses and increased tolerance to environmental stresses like salinity, temperature or drought. Through this technique genes for shelf life, flower colour and architecture may be directly transferred to develop new varieties that are tailor made to customer preferences. Bioluminescent orchids and blue roses are the significant outcomes of the genetic transformation studies in ornamentals (Swarnapiria, 2009).

Since floricultural and ornamental crops are grown for aesthetic purpose and are non-edible there is likely to be less concern in bio safety issues compared to other food crops. Hence there is considerable potential for developing transgenics in ornamental crops. Advances in transgenic technology provide new opportunities for manipulation of the genome. These will have significant impact on expanding and diversifying the gene pool of crop plants, introducing specific genes and shortening the time required for the production of new varieties or hybrids. Molecular breeding is beneficial to increase the production and quality by creating plants with enhanced resistance to diseases, insects or viruses and increased tolerance to environmental stresses like salinity, temperature or drought. Through this technique genes for shelf life, flower colour and architecture may be directly transferred to develop new varieties that are tailor made to customer preferences. Bioluminescent orchids and blue roses are the significant outcomes of the genetic transformation studies in ornamentals (Swarnapiria, 2009).

GENETIC ENGINEERING VS. TRADITIONAL BREEDING

Breeding with transgenic plants is only justified when genetic variation within the primary and secondary gene pools of a species is too small or gene transfer by conventional techniques is difficult and time-consuming. There are a number of different means for increasing or even creating new genetic variation, like species hybridization, mutation induction and protoplast fusion, which have been frequently used to breed new varieties. It is worth mentioning that neither plant cultivation nor commercialization of commodities has any legal requirements and a public discussion about these plants is also lacking. Therefore, a breeder must carefully assess the different constraints of transgenic breeding before starting a breeding program which are the legal aspects and acceptance by farmers, consumers and stakeholders (Jung, 2010).

Characterization of Germplasm / Hybrids, Varietal identification, mutants etc.

Accurate identification of plants is desired for patent protection of plant varieties. Accurate characterization is also necessary to trace out the parents of new varieties. Use of present day molecular markers in addition to the classical methods provides more positive identification of new cultivars. RAPD and other molecular techniques have been used in a variety of plant materials for such studies (Sneath and Sokal 1973, Saitou and Nei 1987, Demeke et al., 1992, Selvam and Rajasekaran  1993, 1994, Dubouzet, et al., 1997, 1998, Hallden, et al., 1994, Hu and Quiros 1991, Jain et al., 1994, Matsumoto and Fukui 1996, Williams et al., 1990, Wolff et al., 1995). RAPD technique has been used in the genus Bougainvillea. It is often difficult to distinguish both mutants and hybrids and sports having a common progenitor, or progenitors themselves. Therefore, the industry needs a DNA-based fingerprinting technique to distinguish mutants or cultivars reliably. Reports are available on investigation about the molecular systematics and genetic differences for better understanding of varietal relationships in bougainvillea (Chatterjee et al., 2007, Kumar et al., 2006, Kumar et al., 2014, Hammad 2009, Pavan Kumar et al., 2015). 

The Cucurbitaceae family is characterized by long training viny stems. There is variation for flower size and colour among the species but all of them have similar general morphology. The species are open pollinated and self compatible. Most of them are either monoecious (eg. Cucurbita spp.) Or andromonoecious (e.g. common in melon). Other species show gynomonoecy, androgynomonoecy, androecy, gynoecy, hermaphrodite or dioecy. Chow-chow is the only member of the Cucurbitaceae that is viviparous, contains single seed and propagated by planting whole fruit. The Indian gene centre has rich diversity in genetic resources of ridgegourd (Luffa acutangula), bottlegourd (Lagenaria siceraria), bittergourd (Momordica charantia), ashgourd (Benincasa hispida), snakegourd (Trichosanthes anguina), pointed gourd- parval (Trichosanthes dioica), pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.) and roundgourd (Praecitrullus vulgaris). Cucurbits are of tremendous economic importance and are cultivated throughout the world from tropical to sub-temperate zones. China, Turkey, India and Iran are important cucurbit growing countries. In India, this diversity is concentrated in Indo-Gangatic plains, north eastern region, north western Himalayas, the Western and Eastern Ghats and sporadically in the tribal dominant belts of central India.  More diversity occurs in Cucurbita spp. in the north east as also for ashgourd, bottlegourd while for Luffa, it is more concentrated in the eastern peninsular tract.

Tripura is situated between 22º 56’to 240 32’ N latitude and 91010’ to 92021’E longitude with tropic of cancer passing through it. The total geographical area of state is about 10,491 km2 of which 57.98 % area is under forest cover.  Agriculture is an important sector in the state, which contributes 26 % of the State GDP of which the major contribution is from horticultural crops like fruits (pineapple, litchi and oranges), vegetables (potato TPS), plantation crops (cashew nut, coconut, rubber and tea) and spices (ginger, turmeric and black pepper). More than 75 % of the population either directly or indirectly depends on agriculture. The small and marginal farmers constitute about 90 % of total farming community and the average size of land holding is 0.97 ha (1990-91) in comparison to 1.25 ha (1976-77), which is the lowest among the seven other North Eastern states.

With the advent of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-associated protein9 (CRISPR/Cas9) genome editing, a fast and efficient new breeding technology, precision breeding in vegetable crops has become possible now. Several genes have been edited and functionally characterized using CRISPR/Cas9 in tomato for multiple traits such as plant type, floral morphology, fruit traits, disease resistance, and abiotic stress tolerance. The CRISPR/Cas9 has been proven in successful introgression of de novo domestication of elite traits from wild relatives to cultivated tomato. The progress in CRISPR/Cas9 based improvement in vegetable improvement, has been discussed.
Vegetables are an important source of healthy diet, as they provide essential nutrients including vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre, antioxidants and other phytochemicals. Dietary fiber-rich vegetables improve digestion, while also lowering the risk of obesity, diabetes, high cholesterol and heart disease (Behera et al., 2021). A world vegetable survey showed that around 392 vegetable crops are cultivated worldwide, representing 70 families and 225 genera. Over 97 species of higher plants are being cultivated and consumed as vegetables in India. These crops belong to 20 different families such as Cucurbitaceae (25 crops), Fabaceae (16 crops), Brassicaceae (12 crop) and Solanaceae (6 crops). The world’s total vegetables production was 1,155 million tonnes in 2021 where China ranks first with a total production of 600 million tonnes, accounting for 52.18% of the total world production. The top 5 countries (China, India, the United States of America, Turkey and Vietnam) account for 70.36% of total world’s production. As far as India is concerned,  it is the largest producer of ginger (2.23 million tonnes) and okra (6.47 million tonnes) in the world, while ranking 2nd in potato (54.23 million tonnes), dry onion (26.64 million tonnes), cauliflower and broccoli (9.25 million tonnes), brinjal (12.87 million tonnes) and cabbage (9.56 million tonnes) (FAO 2023).

1. Introduction

Fenugreek (Trigonella sp.) is one among the world’s oldest seed spice crops and has gained a supreme importance due to its extensive pharmacological properties (Basu and Prasad, 2011; Maloo et al., 2020). In ancient time’s fenugreek plant was well known and used as a medicinal drug by Egyptians (Rouk and Mangesha 1963). The Ebers Papyrus (one of the oldest preserved pharmaceutical documents) detailed therapeutic advantages and descriptions in Egypt circa 1500 BC (Betty, 2008). It has gained great importance due to its multifaceted uses which are being exploited by farmer’s and industrialist for different purposes.

Fruits contribute to nutritional security and thus are an important part of food system. To meet the future demand, development of varieties with improved yield and quality is the focus of researchers involved in fruit breeding. Though conventional breeding has resulted in the development of improved commercial varieties of different fruit crops, however conventional breeding is time consuming and faces several challenges due to long juvenile phase, highly heterozygous nature of most of the fruit crops. Challenges like changing climate, consumer preference, socio-economic conditions like reduced availability of land, labour and increasing cost of inputs, require fast and efficient methods to develop the varieties to meet the demands, which is not feasible with conventional breeding. Marker assisted breeding has given impetus to breeding efforts in several fruit crops, however it’s use is limited only for the traits controlled by a few major QTLs.
During last few years, enormous genomic resources have been developed for fruit crops using next generation sequencing technology. Such advances in genomic research in many fruit crops have paved the way for precision breeding using genomic assisted breeding (GAB) tools. GAB has helped in characterisation and utilisation of genome resources and using allele variation for cultivar development (Varshney et al. 2021). Advances in sequencing technology and affordability has allowed the genome wide analysis (GWAS) on diversity panels of different fruits resulting in identification of allelic variation associated with the traits of interest. Also, identification of superior alleles of candidate genes makes them amenable to genome editing based precision breeding. Genome wide genotyping and phenotyping offers tools for developing strategy for genomic selection (GS). Genomic selection relies on the prediction of breeding values of tested genotypes based on the large number of markers spread over entire genome. These tools promise to further improve breeding efficiency in fruit crops.

World Trade Organisation

The World Trade Organisation (WTO) was the result of years of painstaking efforts on the part of governments and other bodies to establish a globally acceptable basis for a new economic order. It was established to correct the imbalances and disparities in international trade and bring about an evenly balanced world trade order that equally benefits the developed, developing and least developed nations. While there are several agreements under the WTO, the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) specifically represents the resolve of all member countries to use intellectual property as one of the means for achieving economic balance and diminishing the trade barriers.

The term Geographical Indications (GIs) attained significant status in trade agreement negotiations after the establishment of World Trade Organization (WTO).Under WTO, Agreement on the Trade Related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) sets forth standards to regulate international intellectual property protection and enforcement and establishes international minimum standards for GIs. Geographical Indications identify goods that have a specific geographical origin and possess a quality, reputation or other characteristics which are due to that place of origin. Geographical Indications are now widely accepted as valuable marketing tools in the global economy and are useful to protect rights of communities. Geographical Indications are not granted to individuals but are granted to the group/association of producers as the symbol of collective ownership.

Geraniaceae is a family of about 7 genera and 830 species which are
cosmopolitan in distribution and found widely in temperate and tropical regions.
Only 3 genera and about 25 species have been reported from India, mainly
from Himalayas. Some of the larger genera along with their approximately
reported species in parenthesis include Geranium (430), Pelargonium (280),
Erodium (80) and Monsonia (25). Well-known ‘geranium oil’ is distilled from
Pelargonium odoratissinum.
Pelargonium (syn. Geraniums, Stork bills) is an extremely popular garden
plant and has considerable economic importance in the market of ornamental
plants. Its genotypes and hybrids are grown in temperate regions. Its value as a
potential essential oil yielding crop is also mentioned. Geranium oil is widely
used in perfumery, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and food industries. Oil has
anti-microbial, and pesticidal activities. The genus Pelargonium comprises
more than 280 species in 13 sections of which 33 have been originated in
southern parts of South Africa (Van der Walt and Vorster, 1988). It has been
reported that nearly 80 per cent diversity of Pelargoniums is centered in Cape
Province if African continent (South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique).
Pelargoniums are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding and
pot plants with numerous phenotypes (Fish type, Ivy leaved, Regal, Angels,
Fancy leaves, Scented, Oak leaf) and cultivars (Double/ Bar/ Centre/ Ring/
Vein/ Picotee pattern/ Tulip/ Carnation/ Phlox/ Birds egg flowered) available
on the world market. True geranium is a bushy, aromatic plant. The stem is
cylindrical, woody at the base, pubescent, green when young and turning
brown with age. The leaves are highly aromatic in nature. Flowers are regular
and devoid of spur like appendages.

Introduction
Geranium is also known as cranesbill, scented geranium/rose geranium. It is adaptable over a wide range of soil conditions and drought tolerant. Being perennial aromatic herb, it is cultivated for rose scented essential oil extracted from leaves and tender shoots. The oil thus obtained is also called pelargonium oil or rose-geranium oil. The oil is of varied colour from colourless to pale yellowbrown or greenish. The genus Pelargonium belongs to the family Geraniaceae.
Origin
Geranium is native to sub-tropical southern Africa, and the most popular of bedding and green-house plants. The genus Pelargonium consists of about 600 species, which are annual, biennial, and perennials found in Cape province of South Africa.
Botany
The cultivated geraniums may belong to herbaceous to woody with thick fleshy leaves of round to lobed shape and deep cut. The flowers are present in terminal clusters with varying colours from white to pink, deep red and violet. Cultivated species are hybrids, having double flowers of mixed colours.

Geranium (Pelargonium spp.) belongs to the family Geraniaceae. The name Pelargonium was introduced by Johannes Burman a Dutch Botanist in 1738, from the Greek word “Pelargos” means stork because the seed head looks like a stork’s beak.  Due to their long and beak-shaped fruits, they are also known by the name of cranesbills. Geraniums are popular flowering plants and grown as decorative pot plants for indoor and outdoor. There is a world demand for the rose geranium essential oil of Pelargonium species which contains geraniol, linalool and citronellol, substitutes for the expensive attar of roses in the perfume trade. Pelargonium species was known for their medicinal value by the earliest indigenous people (Swanepoel, 2009).

Geranium (Pelargonium spp.) belongs to the family Geraniaceae. The name Pelargonium was introduced by Johannes Burman a Dutch Botanist in 1738, from the Greek word “Pelargos” means stork because the seed head looks like a stork’s beak. Due to their long and beak-shaped fruits, they are also known by the name of cranesbills. Geraniums are popular flowering plants and grown as decorative pot plants for indoor and outdoor. There is a world demand for the rose geranium essential oil of Pelargonium species which contains geraniol, linalool and citronellol, substitutes for the expensive attar of roses in the perfume trade. Pelargonium species was known for their medicinal value by the earliest indigenous people (Swanepoel, 2009).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The plants originated from South Africa (Swanepoel, 2009), as well as Reunion, Madagascar, Egypt and Morocco and were introduced to European countries such as Italy, Spain and France in the 17^th century. Geranium includes around 422 species of flowering annual, biennial and perennial plants. Both Geranium and Pelargonium are genera in the Family Geraniaceae. Linnaeus originally included all the species in one genus. Geranium, but they were later separated into two genera by Charles L’ Heritier in 1789. Although members of the Pelargonium genus are often referred to as ‘Pelargoniums’ to try to avoid confusion, many people still use the older common name of ‘Geranium’.

Most of the Pelargonium plants cultivated in Europe and North America have their origins in South Africa. Geranium robertianum is found throughout Europe, Asia and North Africa where it grows on a variety of soils, rocks, tree trunks and decaying organic matter such as logs. It is a component of virtually all forest types there. In the Pacific Northwest it is primarily found west of the Cascade crest although it extends along the Columbia River in Klickitat County. Ecological structure of Geranium robertianum L. populations under natural conditions and in the garden in Poland. Geranium farreri found in China, in south Gansu and north-west Sichuan.

Abstract: Pelargonium (syn. Geranium), has become mainstay in temperate landscapes because of its ease of production and cultivation, long lasting bloom, range of plant habits and diversity of uses (perfumery, cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industries). Confusion exists about nomenclature and taxonomic revision has attempted. Pelargoniums are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding and pot plants with numerous phenotypes (Fish type, Ivy leaved, Regal, Angels, Fancy leaves, Scented, Oak leaf) and cultivars (Double/ Bar/ Centre/ Ring/ Vein/ Picotee pattern/ Tulip/ Carnation/ Phlox/ Birds egg flowered) available on the world market. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of novel phenotypes particularly trailing growth habit, reduced plant size, compact form, manipulation of flowers (size, number, coloration, longevity, timing) and disease resistant cultivars. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits, molecular genetic techniques and biotechnological applications are valuable tools aiding modern pelargonium breeders. The need of new cultivars remains strong as divergence among pelargonium market types increases, production system becomes more specialized and new market develops.

Gerbera, commonly known as Transvaal Daisy, Barberton Daisy or African Daisy, is cultivated throughout the world under a wide range of climatic conditions for its attractive flowers. It is highly suitable for beds, borders, pots and rock gardens. The wide range of colour and the attractive shape of flowers suit very well in flower arrangements. The cut blooms have long vase life. Today Gerbera is known as an important commercial flower crop and belongs to the most important plant species in the world, together with the rose, chrysanthemum, carnation and tulip. Gerbera is amongst the ten most important commercially grown flower crops in the world.

Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii), a tender, stemless, perennial flowering plant, belongs to family Asteraceae. Gerbera was named in honour of the German botanist and naturalist “Traugott Gerber” who was a friend of Carolus Linnaeus. Gerbera is very popular and widely used as cut flower or as a decorative garden plant. It was discovered in 1878 near Barberton, eastern Transvaal (South Africa), therefore, referred as the Barberton daisy or Transvaal daisy. It is ideal for beds, borders and pots and is the fifth most important cut flower in the world.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Gerbera is originated from South Africa. The native distribution of genus Gerbera comprising 30 species, extends to Africa, Madagascar, tropical Asia and South America (Hansen, 1985 and Bremer, 1994). Whereas, it was also reported that gerbera is found in the temperate and tropical parts of Asia and Africa and about 7 species are recorded in India. This plant is distributed in the temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal. Gerbera is commonly seen on the dry slopes near Shimla and on hillsides above Gulmarg in Kashmir (Anon., 1956). The G. jamesonii is found naturally in grassland in sandy soils in Mpumalanga and Barberton district. The genus Gerbera has approximately 14 southern African species, some of which are found only in Western Cape. G. aurantica is endemic to the mist belt grassland region of KwaZulu-Natal and is known from approximately 9 scattered populations from Helahela in the south to Babanango in the north. This species is under threat of extinction due to habitat fragmentation and degradation. In India they are distributed in temperate Himalayas at altitudes of 1300-3200 metres and observed from Kashmir to Nepal.

The genus Gerbera is named in honour of German naturalist Traugott Gerber who travelled in Russia in 1743 and started first botanical garden in Moscow. However, for species i.e. jamesonii, it is a matter of different opinion. The jamesonii was named for Dr. L. S. Jameson, a British colonial statesman in South Africa who was one of the discoverers of this species, whereas in some literature, the species was named after Robert Jameson who collected live specimens while on a prospecting expedition to the Barberton district in 1884, even though the species collected on three earlier occasions by other people. In 1888, Medley Wood, the curator of the Durban Botanical Garden sent plants to Kew, which subsequently flowered. This is native to South Africa, Madagascar, Asia, South America and Indonesia.

The first official description of South African species G. jamesonii was made by J.D. Hooker in Curtis Botanical magazine with coloured illustration in 1889. An active society on this subject is to be found in Australia under the name W.A. Gerbera Society. The society has used a classification system of gerbera. The breeding of gerbera started at the end of the nineteenth century in Cambridge, England, when two South African sp. were crossed. G. jamesonii native to Natal and Transvaal and G. viridifolia from western Cape were crossed together by R. Irwin Lynch in 1887, after both these species were introduced to Cambridge Botanic Gardens by Jameson and the hybrid was named as G. x cantabrigensis.

INTRODUCTION

Gerbera is a herbaceous flower crop with leafless stalk and daisy like flowers. It is popularly known as Barberton daisy, Transvaal daisy, Veldt daisy, African daisy and Hilton daisy. Gerbera is a popular cut flower grown throughout the world. It is ideally suited for flower beds, borders, pots, window boxes and gardens. The gerbera plant is also used in the preparation of traditional Chinese medicine i.e. Tu-er-feng, derived from whole plant of gerbera, is used for curing cold with cough and for rheumatism. Gerberas have wide range of bright, vivid and clear colours. Some of the flower colours available today are pink, yellow, red, scarlet, orange, salmon, lavender, violet, rose, cream and white. They are great plants for adding colour to any room or garden to create festive and elegant display. These spectacular, eye catching flowers are a complement to any kind of flower arrangement or bouquet and have a longer vase life. Their daisy shaped flowers have a velvet texture with green or dark centers and are cherished by florists and the cut flower industry.

It grows well in open tropical and sub tropical regions but in a temperate climate should be protected from frost and cultivated in greenhouses. Production of quality flowers of gerberas can be done under protected conditions, since they require partial shade. In California and Florida, it is grown in outdoors and is becoming increasingly popular as potted plant and bedding plant, whereas in other parts of United States it is cultivated in greenhouses. Gerbera cultivation has emerged as a very important option to progressive farmers in many parts of India, especially in Maharashtra, Karnataka, north-eastern states, U.P. and Uttaranchal.

Abstract: Gerberas are popular seed and vegetatively propagated flower crop with numerous phenotypes, series and cultivars available on the world market. Crop improvement is currently focused on bicoloured mini gerbera, semi-double and spider type forms, and hybrid cultivars with expanded colour range to boost productivity and profitability. Application of genetic engineering techniques and tools are aiding in modern gerbera breeding. The need for new cultivars remains strong as production system become more specialized and new markets develop. Breeding objectives with high priority include cut flower cultivars highly resistant to diseases, tolerant to low temperature, and floral longevity.

Introduction

Gerbera is a herbaceous flower crop with leafless stalk and daisy like flowers. It is also known as Transvaal daisy. Gerbera is a popular cut flower grown throughout the world. It is ideally suited for flower beds, borders, pots and gardens.

In California and Florida, it is grown in outdoors and is becoming increasingly popular as potted plant and bedding plant, whereas in other parts of United States it is cultivated in greenhouses. Gerbera cultivation has emerged as a very important option to progressive farmers in many parts of India, especially in Maharashtra, Karnataka, North Eastern states, U.P. and Uttarakhand.

Genetics

The genus Gerbera belongs to family Asteraceae. Gerbera comprises about 70 species, which are of African and Asiatic origin. The basic chromosome number is n=25. G. jamesonii is a diploid species with somatic chromosome number 2n=50. Among the different species, G. jamesonii is the only species under cultivation.

This chapter introduces Gerbera as a popular cut flower known for its daisy-like blooms, wide range of colours and long vase life. It examines its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and commercially important varieties. The chapter discusses greenhouse production, environmental requirements, propagation, irrigation, nutrition, cultural practices, pest and disease management, harvesting and postharvest handling. It emphasizes the importance of protected cultivation for producing high-quality gerbera flowers in different agro-climatic regions of India

Wild relatives of cultivated plants constitute a part of crop genepool, which possess genes that have great potential for their utilization in crop improvement programmes. Wild genepools especially those occurring in biotically disturbed habitats are under threat of genetic erosion and require immediate collection to make use of their wider adaptability, tolerance/resistance to disease, insect-pests, yield, quality attributes and other biotic and abiotic traits. The wild relatives of crop plants occur in all the major phytogeographical regions of India as component of different vegetation types and exhibit variable life forms and habitat specificity. High priority demand is towards collection of those that are at the risk of erosion due to habitat disturbance by manmade/natural causes and over-exploitation of species for commercial use.

Wild relatives of cultivated plants constitute a part of crop genepool, which possess genes that have great potential for their utilization in crop improvement programmes. Wild genepools especially those occurring in biotically disturbed habitats are under threat of genetic erosion and require immediate collection to make use of their wider adaptability, tolerance/resistance to disease, insect-pests, yield, quality attributes and other biotic and abiotic traits. The wild relatives of crop plants occur in all the major phytogeographical regions of India as component of different vegetation types and exhibit variable life forms and habitat specificity. High priority demand is towards collection of those that are at the risk of erosion due to habitat disturbance by manmade/ natural causes and over-exploitation of species for commercial use.

The centres of endemism are also centres of genetic diversity and consequently centres of speciation. Unless suitable conservation methods are applied, important wild relatives of crop plants and rare endemic species in particular have poor chances of survival. Based on the efforts made in the past for collection of diversity in wild relatives of crop plants priorities have been recommended for their conservation on the basis of species status (endemic, rare/threatened/endangered, etc.) and those that have high demand in crop improvement programmes (Arora and Nayar, 1984; Nayar, 1996, 1997; Wiersema and Leon, 1999; Hanelt and Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research, 2001).

All economically important species at the risk of genetic erosion require attention for collection and conservation. Highest priority may be assigned to those having highly specialized habitat requirement and those that are endemic/rare/endangered to Indian region. Species producing seeds in large quantity and having easy method of multiplication or conservation are at lower risk than those producing less seed and of the recalcitrant or orthodox types where the storage protocols have been least worked out. Species having short seed viability or low germinability need special investigation.

Plant genetic resources are the key components of crop improvement because of development of precision breeding system through biotechnological approaches as well as conventional system of breeding like selection and hybridization. Breeding system of hybridization is replaced by cybrid technology that facilitates transferring more qualitative and quantitative traits rapidly within incompatible genotypes. Aonla is mainly recognized for its high nutritive, medicinal and therapeutic properties. It contains high amount of vitamin-C (500-1500mg/100g), it is also rich in pectin, iron, calcium and phosphorus. Dried fruits of aonla can be used in curing haemorrhage, diarrhea, chronic dysentery, diabetes, jaundice, dyspepsia and cough. Recently, aonla gained more popularity in arid and semi- arid region of the country because of its hardy nature, prolific bearing capacity and ability to grow under various adversities as a remunerative crop (Shukla et al.2002). Aonla is the main ingredient of Chavanprash and Triphala powder, used for curing different   human ailments. Fruit contains a chemical substance gallic acid and leucoanthocyanin, having antioxidant property.

As mentioned above, all the present day Bougainvillea cultivars being grown in India are either exotics introduced from abroad (Africa, USA, U.K., South Africa, Australia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Jamaica, Canary Island, Singapore, Java, West Indis etc) or developed by concentrated efforts of nurserymen, individuals or scientific institutions. Bougainvillea are widely grown in Indian gardens. There are numerous varieties and cultivars that are important from floriculture point of view. Most of the present day varieties have arisen through bud sports, chance crossing and induced mutation. India is one of the major repository of wide range of genotypes of Bougainvillea and is perhaps the foremost among nations which have done appreciable good work on Bougainvillea. The genetic variation in plants is considered to be an unlimited resource. The main aim of germplasm collections are assemblies of genotypes or populations representative of cultivars, genetic stocks, wild species etc. which are maintained in forms such as plants, seeds and tissue cultures. The primitive cultivars and wild relatives of crop plants constitute a pool of genetic diversity.  The  germplasm collection and conservation of plant genetic resources provide the diverse raw materials for immediate or future breeding programme. Activities that relate to the conservation and use of plant genetic resources include : exploration and collection; characterization and evaluation; conservation; assessment of variation and identification of useful genes; and exchange and genetic enhancement. Germplasm are the basic raw materials, which after proper screening can be utilized either for direct commercial exploitation or can be used in breeding programme for developing new and novel varieties.

Giant granadilla, Passiflora quadrangularis L. (syn. P. macrocarpa M.T. Mast.) is the largest fruit in the genus Passiflora. With more than 450 species, Passiflora is the most important genus of family Passifloraceae. It is further divided into 24 subgenera (Killip, 1938). Most of the species producing an edible fruit belong to subgenera Passiflora and Tacsonia. Many species have ornamental interest because of unique and spectacular flowers, or are used for their sedative, antispasmodic, antibacterial, and insect-resistant properties.

Gladiolus is a flower of breathtaking beauty with a wide range of colours, size and form. Its magnificent inflorescence has won for it, a place of pride in gardens and value as a cut flower. Except true blue and green practically all colours are available in gladiolus. Flowers are long lasting and stand transport well. They are widely used in flower arrangements, bouquets and indoor decorations. It is estimated that gladiolus is grown throughout India over on area of 1270 ha (Arora et al. 2002).

Gladiolus (Gladiolus spp.) belongs to family Iridaceae and subfamily Ixioideae. Gladiolus is a Latin word, the diminutive of “gladius” meaning sword, sometimes called as sword lily. The plant is herbaceous perennial and semi-hardy. It is commonly grown from rounded, symmetrical corm, which is enveloped in several layers of brownish, fibrous tunics. The cultivated gladiolus is a complex assemblage of cultivars originating from complex ancestry of natural selection or hybridization involving several species. Modern garden gladiolus is a complex of at least twelve species (Raghava, 2000). It is an important commercial cut flower in both domestic and international markets.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

There are two main centres of distribution of Gladiolus species, one in Mediterranean basin and the other in southern and central Africa (Lewis et al., 1972 and Delpierre and Du Plessis 1974). Most of the species are native to Mediterranean region and tropical parts of the South Africa, particularly the region of the Cape of Good Hope (Raghava, 2000).

The name gladiolus was coined by Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23-79) to describe the shape of the leaf which resembles that of sword (Latin word gladius meaning sword). It is native to South Africa. Most of the species scattered throughout South Africa, Zambesi River, Rhodesia, Mt. Kilimangero, Tanganyika, Natal and Cape of Good Hope, Republic of South Africa, Madagascar and Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Gladioli are said to be cultivated since the days of ancient Greece. As evidenced by a record in Lyte’s Nieeve Herball, it is known since 1578, first introduced in France and soon after spread to England, Germany, Holland and North America. No evidence is available that any species of gladiolus of South African origin was ever grown in Europe prior to 1700. Cornutus described Gladiolus aethiopion bearing light red-scarlet flowers and is from Cape region. In the middle of eighteenth century the South African species were introduced into Europe. Gladiolus tristis closely related to G. grandis was first introduced in Chelsea Physii Garden, UK in 1745 from Cape region and Walat. G. illyricus is native to Mediterranean region. In 1749, Gladiolus grandis was naturalized in Spain from South Africa.

By 1816, France, Holland and Belgium started raising hybrids, the first being Ghant Gladiolus, Gladiolus gandavensis, in 1841, by crossing G. cardinalis and G. psittacinus and vice-versa. Gladiolus primulinus having central petals with hooded characteristics was collected from its native place on the banks of Zambesi River near Victoria Falls in 1902. Victor Lemoine of France used G. primulinus for producing ‘Primulinus Hybrids’ during 1906-1908 while A.E. Kunderd of Indiana, U.S.A. in 1915 produced a similar race ‘Primulinus Grandiflora Hybrids’ by using same parentage as Lemoine. In 1907, first ruffled gladiolus with fimbriated and frilled petals was produced by the efforts of Kunderd.

Gladiolus is a potential flower crop for floriculture industry in India. Gladiolus is commercially grown in West Bengal, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Haryana, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi and Rajasthan. The area of the states of U.P., Uttarakhand, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and H.P. and surrounding Delhi grow gladiolus mostly for Delhi flower market (Singh, 2006).

INTRODUCTION

Gladiolus is very popular bulbous flowering plant. It is an important commercial flower crop and having pivotal place as cut flower both in domestic and international market. Gladiolus was introduced into cultivation towards the end of the sixteenth century. It is relatively easy to grow and is ideal for bedding and exhibition. The fascinating spikes bear a large number of florets, which exhibit varying sizes and forms with smooth, ruffled or deeply crinkled tepals. Except true blue and green, practically all colours are available in gladiolus. The flowers are used in flower arrangement, in bouquets and for indoor decorations. Now it ranks next to tulip in the Netherlands and other European countries in trade for use as cut flowers of bulbous crops and fourth in international trade of ornamental for cut flowers. Its keeping quality makes it a very popular commercial cut flower after rose. Gladiolus occupies first place in terms of returns as compared to other cut flowers. Gladiolus, a potential floral crop forms part of Rs. 200 crores floriculture industry in the country. It is estimated that throughout India gladiolus is grown in about 1270 ha, producing about 127 million cut spikes. In India, gladiolus is commercially grown in West Bengal, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Punjab, Haryana, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi and Rajasthan. The area of the states of U.P., Uttaranchal, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and H.P. and surrounding Delhi grow gladiolus mostly for Delhi flower market. Important pockets of commercial gladiolus cultivation are Lucknow, Meerut, Bulandsahar, Ghaziabad and Uttaranchal. In Delhi market, gladiolus is available virtually throughout the year as growers stagger the corm planting from July to December to harvest the flowers from September to May. During the period between June to December, the supply of gladiolus spikes to Delhi market comes from Jammu and Kashmir, Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh. The high remuneration in this market is obtained from winter grown gladiolus.

Abstract: Gladiolus, commonly known as ‘sword lily’ is native to South Africa. Most members of genus are heteroploids. It has pivotal place as cut flower with novel phenotypes (Grandifloras, Primulinus, Butterfly, Miniature, Face Ups, Orchideola), cultivars available on world market. Modern types are evolved through conventional breeding and very few through mutation breeding. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of fragrant, winter hardy and disease resistant cultivars. Breeders have reported close linkages in variety of traits. Cross pollinating nature coupled with high heterozygosity makes heredity transmission unpredictable. Future crop idiotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this important crop during the next millennium.

Introduction

Gladiolus is an important commercial flower crop and is very popular as cut flower both in domestic and international market. It is a bulbous plant. Gladiolus was introduced into cultivation towards the end of the sixteenth century. The flowers are used in flower arrangement, in bouquets and for indoor decorations. In India gladiolus is commercially grown in West Bengal, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Haryana, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi and Rajasthan.

Genetics

Gladiolus commonly called Sword Lily belongs to family Iridaceae and subfamily Ixioideae. There are about 260 species of gladiolus. It has the basic chromosome number n=15. Most members of genus are heteroploids having very small chromosomes ranging from 2n=30 to 120 (Diploid, triploid, tetraploid, pentaploid, hexaploid, octaploid and hyperaneauploid).

Gladiolus, commonly known as ‘Sword lily’ which derives its name from latin word Gladius meaning sword shape foliage. The name gladiolus was originally given by Pliny the Elder (A.D.23-79). It is an important florist crop, cut flower in the domestic and international flower trade. It is relatively easy to grow, suitable for cut flower, pots, hanging basket, bedding and exhibition. An engrossing cut spikes bear a large number of florets on rachis, which exhibit various sizes, forms, with smooth, ruffled, deeply crinkled or laciniated tepals. As a genus it was first proposed by Tournefort and which was accepted in botanical litreture by Linnaeus through his description “Species Plantarum” in 1753 and “Genera Planterum” in 1754. The gladioli are said to be cultivated since the days of ancient Greece. The genus Gladiolus, at present comprises with 255 species (Mishra et al.,1995; Goldblatt and Manning,1998) with wide distribution occurs in Central Europe, Mediterranean region, Central and South Africa are primary centre of origin. Campbell and Bower (2003) mentions about one more species Gladiolus scabridus- a new species 1978 from the mountains of northern Kwa Zulu- Natal and southern Swaziland, restricted to well- drained rocky habitat and where it is endemic. This species has enormous commercial potential have large number of pink flowers. So now number of recorded gladiolus species are more than 260. The gladiolus was brought into cultivation first during Greek period. Gladiolus has been documented in literature since 1578, as evidenced from the record Lyte’s Nievve herbal. This was first time introduced in France and soon after spread to England, Germany, Holland and North America. In India, its cultivation dates back to 19^th century as mentioned in the ‘Firminger’s Manual of Gardening in India (1863)’ that Mr. Charles Gray of Conoor grew some gladioli from corms and seeds at his garden. The European Union gladiolus importing countries are Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, Denmark, Spain, France, United Kingdom, The Netherlands, Italy and Portugal.

Abstract: Gomphrena, indigenous to India, is popular choice for borders, edging, making crafts and potpourris. Only few species are cultivated under tropical and sub-tropical regions. A little work has been done in its improvement. Research should be focused on varietal development for long photoperiod cultivation, tolerant to high temperature stress and medicinal values of the crop. Prospects of hybridization and mutation breeding need to be explored.

INTRODUCTION

Gloriosa is commonly known as glory or gloriosa lily. Gloriosa lilies have assumed an important place in flower trade and are widely grown for cut flower and tuber production both in USA and Europe. Gloriosa lily is the national flower emblem of Zambia. Their cut flower stems last well in summer heat and their buds take lon time to open after picking. The bright vibrant and intense, red, gold, lemon and pink flower colours and the lush green leaves of gloriosa lilies bring a sense of the tropics or festivity to room. They combine well with many other flowers from roses to heliconias. Gloriosa blooms make perfect posies for the office desk, bedside cabinets or small tables and shelves. The stiff stems of gloriosa and their ability to hold their form out of water for a longer time make them ideal for out of water floral installation work. They are light climbers and are suitable for training on low walls or trellis. With proper trailing they can also be grown in pots. Its flowers are fascinating and its tubers and seeds have great medicinal value. The tubers are rich in alkaloids. Colchicine has been obtained from various plant parts viz., young leaves, flowers, old leaves, tubers, seeds and stems.

Gomphrena (Gomphrena globosa), commonly called globe amaranth, globe flower or bachelor’s button, is an important loose and dry flower crop. Its spherical, long-lasting flower heads make it particularly valuable in the dry flower industry. The chapter describes its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and important cultivars. Gomphrena is also notable for betalain pigments and its C4 photosynthetic pathway, which contributes to heat tolerance and moderate drought resistance. Production practices covered include climate and soil requirements, propagation, nursery management, land preparation, nutrient management, irrigation and intercultural operations. The chapter also addresses pest and disease management, harvesting for fresh and dried flowers, postharvest handling and yield.

GAP stands for “Good Agricultural Practices” which are used for production of safe agricultural produce which has zero microbial load on it and inside it. It is important for the producer to be acquainted with GAP.

Good Agricultural Practice of horticultural crops are intended to apply to the growing and processing of all produce as traded and used in the European Union. Hence, they apply to the production of all plant materials used in the food, feed and medicinal industries. They also apply to all methods of production including organic production in accordance with the European Union regulations.

The farmers involved in the cultivation of horticultural produce should ensure that the there is no damage to the existing wild life and the biodiversity in the farms which are maintained. It is advisable to regulate wild gathering by a specific guideline.

The main aim of GAP guidelines is to ensure that the produce meets the demand of the consumer and is of high quality standard.

It is therefore, important that they are produced hygienically, in order to reduce microbiological load to a minimum. They are produced with care, so that negative effect on plants in the course of cultivation, processing and storage is limited.

All participants in the production process are required to comply with these guidelines voluntarily and to develop practical measures to achieve it.

Grafting is a horticultural technique. It is used commercially for many woody plants and some herbaceous plants. The purposes of grafting include asexual propagation, obtaining resistance to soil borne diseases, nematodes and unfavorable conditions, and improving fruit quality. Although there are advantages to grafting, graft incompatibility often prevents its practical use. Graft incompatibility occurs when the combination of scion and rootstock is inappropriate. The enormous range of genotype varieties used in grafting results in a wide range of physiological, biochemical and anatomical interactions between graft partners. Therefore, the causes and mechanisms of graft incompatibility vary according to graft combinations. Garner (1979) defined graft incompatibility as the failure to unite into a strong union, the failure to grow in a healthy manner, or premature death, when such failures could be attributed to differences between rootstock and scion.
 
The purpose of this review is to understand graft incompatibility as an aid to solving graft incompatibility problems. The symptoms and types of graft incompatibility are described, the causes and mechanisms of graft incompatibility are explored, and directions for future research are identified.

The green buildings are the needs of present day in India as well in the world. The easy availability of most of the green materials and equipments in the country has made it easier for designers to adopt local materials to a very large extent in the construction of green buildings. Now, there is an imminent need for service providers, who would be required in large number, not in hundreds but in thousands, as the movement is heading to reach greater heights. The green building movement is here to stay for the benefit of individuals, society and the country at large in the era of climate change.

With increase in the urbanization and industrialization, there is more pressure on available land and natural resources. In coming era, there will be only limited space available for city dwellers. In buildings one can grow a wide range of flowering and foliage plants. Plants not necessarily one confined to the outdoor only but bed room, kitchen, staircases, patios, windows and other locations can be made green with suitable plants. Indian Council of Green Building (ICGB) has developed the rating system.

Green Building in Santiago, Chile

A large amount of materials are used and energy consumed in construction and operation of average building. Many steps have been taken to reduce consumption of energy by developing new types of vehicle, energy sources, recycled materials and designing environment friendly buildings. These buildings are also known as green buildings or green construction or sustainable building.

The importance of green manuring in crop production has been known since ancient times. However, awareness towards soil enrichment is increasing in recent years, mainly due to comparatively high cost of inorganic fertilizers, increased risk of environmental pollution and need of sustainable cropping systems. Green manuring helps to improve physical, chemical and biological properties of soil and consequently crop yields. Green manuring lowers the nitrogenous fertilizer requirements for succeeding crops. However, it’s influence may vary with soil, crop environmental variables, type of green manure crop used and its management.

Green manuring is a practice of ploughing or turning into the soil un-decomposed green plant tissues for the purpose of improving physical structure as well as fertility of the soil. It is obtained in two ways; by growing green manure crops or by collecting green leaf (along with twigs) from plants grown in wastelands, field bunds and forest. Green manuring by growing the field plants usually belonging to the leguminous family and incorporated into the soil after sufficient growth. The most important green manure crops are sunnhemp, dhaincha, Pillipesara, cluster beans and Sesbania rostrata. The advantages of green manuring are as follows.

8.1 Introduction

The management of greenhouse environments has become crucial in modern agriculture due to increasing concerns about climate change and the urgent need for sustainable farming practices. Greenhouses, also known as “controlled environment agriculture” facilities, have revolutionized the way we grow food by extending the growing season and allowing us to cultivate a wide range of plants in various climates. They achieve this by precisely regulating environmental elements such as temperature, humidity, light, and carbon dioxide concentration, which are all crucial for optimizing plant growth and yield.

3.1 Chemistry of greenhouse gases (ghgs)

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are atmospheric-gases that have capabilities to absorb and radiate-back the infrared (IR) radiation in the earth-atmosphere system (Figure 3.1). In this process the atmospheric-gases absorb and radiate- back IR radiation in lower atmosphere effectively emitting and absorbing heat energy heat energy. They maintain the heat budget of earth-atmosphere and keep our plant warm. If we typically see the chemistry of those gases, the key point is that they should have dipole moments. This is the property which makes them capable to absorb and radiate-back the range of IR radiation. In a molecule when valence-electrons are not equally shared in a bond between the two atoms, a slight positive charge is developed above one atom and a negative charge on the other atom. That charge difference of the different atoms in a molecule generates the dipole moment. For instance, in water vapour (H₂O- vapour), an unequal sharing of electrons and or separation of charge causes dipole moment. In H₂O, the centre has a positive charge at the hydrogen atoms and negative charges are located on the oxygen atom. The magnitude of dipole- charges, vibration and stretching of O-H bond generates certain frequency of the oscillating dipole moment that actually regulates the absorption capacity of IR radiation by H₂O vapour.

In India, risk-prone, high altitude area constitutes the easternmost trans-Himalayan part of Ladakh and Zanskar range (Jammu and Kashmir) and some parts of Lahoul Spiti (Himachal Pradesh). Truly described as cold desert with low population density, Ladakh constitutes the easternmost trans-Himalayan part of Jammu and Kashmir in India, comprising two districts, Leh and Kargil, bordering Pakistan and China (Fig. 1).

1.1 Introduction

The greenhouse industry is rapidly growing, particularly in mild climates, and is crucial for providing access to fresh and clean food. Greenhouses provide an optimal climate for crops to grow and protect them from outside pests. Furthermore, greenhouse production has the potential to reduce water waste and implement integrated protection and production (IPP). It is essential to consider the environmental impact of protected cultivation, and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a valuable tool for evaluating these impacts.