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The Indian region is one of the world’s eight centres of crop plant origin and diversity, distinguished by Russian Scientist N.I. Vavilov. The region is home to a rich endemic assemblage of plants. Scrub jungles, grasslands, dry and moist deciduous forests, semi-evergreen and evergreen forests are the variety of vegetations along the Ghats. The complex terrain and heavy rainfall have helped to preserve flora and fauna in this region. The Western Ghats are an area of exceptional biological diversity and conservation interest, and are “one of the major Tropical Evergreen Forest Regions in India”.  This region is extremely rich in floristic diversity and most of the species are not exploited so far. There are many underutilized endemic flowering plants found in Western Ghats having ornamental value. 

Flora of Western Ghats
 The Western Ghats cover only 5% of India’s total geographical area but contains more than 27% (4000 species) of  country’s total plant species (Nayar, 1996). The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadris, extend about 1600 km. starting in North from Tapti river and going down to Kannyakumari in the South. These ranges run parallel to West coast hardly 40 kilometres away on an average from shoreline. The Western Ghats run through states of Maharastra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala. Elevation of Western Ghats is in  900 – 1500 m and in some places goes beyond 2000 m. The Western Ghats form major watershed in Peninsular India and  58 major Peninsular Indian rivers originate from them.

Introduction

More and more people are turning to indoor gardening as a fun and functional way to experience nature without leaving the house. A wide variety of plants may be cared for in the comfort of one’s own home by using this method. Indoor gardening may be adjusted to fit any space, whether it a little flat or a large mansion. Improving air quality, adding a supply of fresh herbs, veggies, or colourful flowers, and increasing interior aesthetics are just a few of the many advantages. Regardless of the season or environment, indoor gardeners are able to produce a broad range of plant species thanks to the comfort of regulated temperature and lighting. In addition, tending to houseplants may be a calming hobby that pays dividends in the form of a feeling of achievement and peace of mind.

Growing foliage and flowering potted plants in the home is a great way to develop an intimacy with the nature. Caring and attending the plants gives us immense pleasure and satisfaction, especially retiring after day long working schedule. Now a days, wide variety of houseplants are available that can accommodate almost any indoor location in terms of available space, light and management factors. Research carried at National Aeronautical Space Agency (NASA) has shown that having plants in the home or office, especially in a closed air-conditioned environment, can be good for your health and well-being.

Our indoor environment

It is surprising to know that our comfort zone environment may have 2-5 times the pollution levels than outside air. Although, the magnitude may vary and could potentially reach 100 times depending upon the size of building, occupants, provision of ventilation, volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) emitted from upholstery and paints. The quality of outside air also determine the indoor air quality that may get mixed-up resulting in elevating the levels of carbon-dioxide (CO₂) and other harmful gases beyond the permissible limit. It has been revealed that the indoor CO₂ levels are substantially higher (3-5 times) than those recorded outdoor. The CO₂ being a narcotic cause drowsiness and loss of concentration leading to decline in performance and productivity of employed staff. This sudden upsurge in CO₂ and other toxic gases evolved from the volatile compounds from paints likely raise the Air Quality Index (AQI) that affects the health and working efficiency of building occupants.

It has been scientifically proved that the equipments installed for ventilating closed environment of residential or commercial buildings are not efficient in removing gases and thereby, to some extent filter only the particulate matter (PM). As per the prescribed standards of World Health Organization (WHO) and American society of heating, refrigeration and air conditioning engineers, the maximum permissible limit for indoor CO₂ is 1000 ppm. The term “Sick Building Syndrome” (SBS) is a very common disorder associated now a dayswith the people working in closed environments, especially that lack ventilation. When the CO₂ levels reach 1500 ppm, symptoms such as sore throat, nasal flow and cough are quite commonly observed among the people, thus affecting their general health and well being. Poor indoor air quality has been a major factor linked to SBS, reducing productivity of employees and also cause impaired learning in children in schools.

1. INSECT- PESTS OF MANGO

1. Mango hoppers: Idioscopus niveosparus, I. clypealis, Amritodus atkinsoni (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)

Management

• Avoid close planting, as the incidence becomes very severe in overcrowded orchards.
• Orchards must be kept clean by ploughing and removal of weeds.
• Pruning of dense canopy to facilitate aeration and sunlight.
• Avoid excess use of nitrogenous fertilizers.
• Immediately after withdrawal of monsoon (September-October), off-seasonal trunk spraying with Malathion 50 EC @ 15 ml in 10 lit of water suppresses the adult hoppers from multiplying further and hinders their oviposition and also kills the newly hatched nymphs.
• Avoid application of all other synthetic pyrethroids as they have been reported to cause resurgence of hoppers.
• If overlapping generations of hoppers are found, spray imidacloprid @ 3 ml or acetamaprid 4 gm in 10 litres of water at panicle emergence stage.

Kewda plants are hardly attacked by the insect pests and diseases. However, a few fungal and bacterial diseases are found to reduce the yield of flowers significantly. Some important insect pests and diseases of this plant with their nature of damage and suggested control measures are discussed here as reported by Jagadev et al. (2001).

Pests

1. Bag worm

During the dry season, leaves are found to be attacked by bag worm (Manatha albipes; Fam. Psychidae; order- Lepidoptera) (Plate 36). The larva, a foliage feeder, feeds on the chlorophyll and veins of leaves leaving the mid-rib resulting in perforation of leaves. In case of heavy infestation, the leaves become dry. Extensive damage arrests the vegetative growth resulting in significant reduction of flowering. Thus, the insect is considered to be of economic importance, but till date neither the extent of economic loss caused to the crop nor its control measures have been worked out.

India is contributing about 10% of the world’s vegetables, and in terms of production, the country stands second after China. The existing area under vegetable cultivation in India is around 6.89 million hectare with a production of about 96.54 million tonnes. There will be a demand of 151-193 million tonnes of vegetables in India by 2030 (Dhaliwal et al., 2006). There are extensive crop losses in vegetable crops due to increased insect infestations. Since vegetables are grown round the year, there is carry over of insect-pests across the seasons and also from sowing until harvesting. Vegetables also invite more pest problems because of their cultivation under high fertility conditions leading to high plant succulence. High yielding varieties and hybrids are further more prone to the attack of insect-pests. Insect infestation affects the quality and market value of vegetables adversely and it is estimated that 30-40% of the total production is lost due to the attack of pests (Lal et al., 2004). A large number of pesticides are being used repeatedly to manage the insect-pests in India. Indiscriminate use of pesticides has led to many problems like toxic residues in edible parts of the vegetables, adverse effects on non-target organisms and beneficial insects, resurgence of secondary pests and development of resistance in major pests to pesticides and also environmental pollution. Therefore, latest approach has been to minimize the use of highly toxic insecticides by integrating different strategies of pest control like use of biological control agents, pesticides of plant origin, insect resistant varieties and other cultural practices. In this chapter, efforts have been made to highlight the distribution, host range, identifying characters, biology and nature of damage of important insect-pests of vegetables and also the methods of their management crop or pest wise.

Institutes like schools, colleges, universities, R&D laboratories besides hospitals, offices, hotels, banks, courts etc. come under this group. It is recommended that these institutions should develop ornamental gardens and greeneries in order to create ambience and producing aesthetic effects. Lawn, flower beds, creepers, shrubbery borders, trees should be planted as a part of beautification programme.

Purpose

Garden attached to these institutions serves various purposes. The main purpose is aesthetic improvement of these campuses by way of planting various ornamental plants in a planned manner which provides scope for relaxation. Educational institutions may develop small gardens for botanical collection which are related with the course curriculum so that these collections complement educational courses. In that case, representative collections of different families are to be planted as per requirement of the course.

1. Introduction

India is known as seed spices hub because as far as International level of concern, our country is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of seed spices. Seed spices contribute about 51.79 % of total area and 19.06 % of production of total spices in the country. The area under seed spices is about 1.74 million hectare and production is about 1.45 million tons (Lal, 2018). In our national economy, seed spices are play an important role, the demand is increasing not only due to its large domestic consumption, but also for export. Since long, huge demand of seed spices and importing countries in global market look at India for quality produce of seed spices. The ISO has been listed a total of 109 spices, out of which 63 spices are being grown in India and 20 spices are being classified as seed spices. 

The perennial nature of fruit crops coupled with high heterozygosity, protracted juvenility, and lack of information on inheritance patterns of important traits of economic significance is responsible for slow progress in breeding of fruit crops. Citrus is one of the most popular fruit crops cultivated in around 140 countries of the world mainly in the Asia-Pacific region. In Asia, citrus fruits are a major crop for the local people in meeting their nutritional requirements and livelihood. Citrus is cultivated as an indispensable cash crop both for domestic consumption and the export market. Recently, the citrus production has shown an increasing trend mainly attributed to its increased demand as a nutritious and healthy drink owing to the possession of many medicinal and antioxidant properties in its fruits.
The clonal selection has been used primarily as one of traditional breeding methods because bud sport mutations arise frequently in Citrus (Iwamasa et al., 1981; Uzun et al., 2004). This method of breeding generally offers many advantages to select clones suitable for their identified uses. Yield and fruit quality are the major targets of breeding and both these can be enhanced through clonal selection of natural mutants or seedlings. The major aim of the clonal selection studies is the selection of clones bearing regularly for many years, improved fruit appearance and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. In general, identifying the elite clones, testing them under different climatic conditions, and freeing them from the virus and virus-like pathogens carried by the mother plants are major steps involved in clonal selection (Ulubelde et al., 1986) for the improvement of fruit crops.

Rainfed farming has a distinct place in Indian Agriculture, occupying 67% of the cultivated area, contributing 44% of the food grains and supporting 40% of the human and 65% of the livestock population. It is characterized by resource poor farmers, poor infrastructure and low investment in technology inputs (Singh, 1999). The land use in rainfed areas is quite diverse with a variety of crops, cropping systems, agroforestry and livestock farming. The productivity levels have remained low over the years and the share of rainfed crops in the total food grain production has been declining. The rainfed ecosystem suffers from the problems of (i) frequent droughts due to high variability in the quantum and distribution of rainfall, (ii) poor soil health due to continued degradation and inadequate replenishment of nutrient exhaustion, (iii) low animal productivity due to an acute scarcity of fodder and (iv) low risk bearing capacity of farmers due to poor socio-economic base, credit availability and infrastructure.

An understanding of intellectual property rights for plant breeders has become increasingly important over the last few decades. It is also a confusing topic to many in the industry. Confusion is understandable when we are presented with various types of protection, many acronyms, terms used interchangeably and incorrectly, regulations that vary internationally and a lack of understanding or consistent interpretations of laws that govern these rights.

Plants are unique from other marketed products due to their complex nomenclature, ease of propagation and the many levels of distribution and promotion involved in their marketing. The protection is required for a plant cultivar needs to be considered in relation to all of these factors in order to be correctly implemented and maintained. Breeding and commercialization of new ornamental plant varieties is an economically important activity both for the industry and the well being of our society. Breeding or developing a new variety requires a long time. In horticultural crops, it takes 3-10 years from initial crossing of parent cultivars to develop a commercial variety. It is important to encourage development of new variety by providing incentives such as Plant Breeders’ Rights (PBR) over exclusive production and marketing of seed of an improved variety. When the new cultivar is introduced and commercialized, plant breeders finally begin to get paid for their years of hard work in the form of royalties. Legal protection for new plant varieties provides the means by which companies, institutions, and independent plant breeders can receive a return on their investments of time and money as well as justify their involvement in research and new plant development. In addition, legal protection enables plant breeders to be recognized for their craft and skill and encourages plant breeding as a profession. Plant variety protection provides an incentive for continued breeding and to ensure the availability of new varieties that meet future demands and keep the industry thriving.

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) are legal rights, which result from intellectual activity in industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. These rights safeguard creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services by granting them certain time-limited rights to control their use. Protected IP rights like other property can be a matter of trade, which can be owned, sold or bought. These are intangible and non exhausted consumption. The term “intellectual property” denotes the specific legal rights which authors, inventors and other IP holders may hold and exercise and not the intellectual work itself (Chadha, 2013). Intellectual property rights are essentially territorial in nature so, where registration is necessary, for patents, registered designs and trademarks, these will not exist in other countries unless registration has been sought and obtained there.

IP protection is crucial for a sustainable contribution of plant breeding and seed supply. Breeding new varieties of plants, which are developed after contributing number of years to the selective inheritance of traits which provide improved yields, higher quality and better resistance to such plant varieties requires a substantial investment in terms of skill, labour, material and economic resources. However, a new variety once released could in many cases be readily reproduced by others so as to deprive its breeder of the opportunity to benefit adequately from the investment made. Thus, an effective system of plant variety protection (PVP) is a key enabler for investment in breeding and the development of new varieties of plants or improving existing plant varieties, encourage importation of foreign varieties, promote exportation of plant varieties provide access to information of the created products and the methodology of creation for the enhancement of social welfare and generally benefit the market place. An international system of IPR protection for plant varieties expands these benefits by facilitating access to new varieties created in other states (Gautam et al., 2012).

Intellectual property is usually divided into two branches: (i) industrial property and(ii) copyright and the rights which neighbour upon copyright. The principal categories of industrial property are: patents, trademarks, geographical indications, industrial designs and trade secrets. Industrial property according to the 1883 Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property is to be understood in the broadest sense and to apply not only to industry and commerce proper but also to agricultural and extractive industries and to all manufactured or natural products including wines, grain, tobacco, leaf, fruit, cattle, minerals, mineral waters, beer, flowers and flour.

Agriculture including forestry, range management and sustenance of plant biodiversity have been the core of Indian civilization that dates back to several millenniums. The enormous plant diversity arising due to the varie soil, environment and altitude variations that India enjoys has resulted in the evolution of various crop species and varieties suiting to different domestic and commercial needs. The Gene Fund created under the law is designed to encourage, protect, promote, and utilize the plant biodiversity for plant
breeding activity in perpetuity. The Gene Fund in turn gets nourished by the flow of annual fee arising out of the sale of seed of the registered varieties. The keepers (services of the men and women; individuals and communities) of plant variation in the agrobiodiversity hotspots are to be beneficiaries of the gene fund. National Gene Fund shall be used for supporting and rewarding farmers and farming communities, who are engaged in conservation and improvement of genetic resources of economic plants and their wild relatives, particularly from the areas identified as hotspots of agrobiodiversity.
An understanding of intellectual property rights for plant breeders has become increasingly important over the last few decades. It is also a confusing topic to many in the industry. Confusion is understandable when we are presented with various types of protection, many acronyms, terms used interchangeably and incorrectly, regulations that vary internationally and a lack of understanding or consistent interpretations of laws that govern these rights.

Intellectual property (IP) means a brand, invention, design or other kind of creation.Intellectual property contains an author’s copyright on a book or article, a distinctive logo design of any product or web site, patent regarding the process of manufacturing.However, Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) can be defined as legal rights given to people over the creation of their minds or intellectual activity in industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. Creator gets an exclusive right for a certain period of time to use his/her creations.Creations of the mind means inventions, literary and artistic works and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce. Intellectual property laws vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, such that the acquisition, registration or enforcement of IP rights must be pursued or obtained separately in each territory of interest.

Since time immemorial India has been leader in respect to spice, area, production and consumption. India is known as ‘Land of spices. Out of 109 spices listed by the ISO, India produce as many as 63 owing to its varied agroclimatic regions. Almost all the state and union territory of the country grow one or the other spices. Spices are the sources of livelihood and employment for large number of people in the country. Seed spices are annual herbs, whose dried seeds or fruit are used as spices. Spices are the nature’s gift to mankind and since antiquity, spices have been considered indispensable in the culinary art, as they are used to flavour foods and beverages The important seed spices are coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek. ajwain, dill,, celery, anise, nigella and caraway. The other seed spices s are poppy seed, rai, yellow mustard, white mustard, parsley and sesame. In India, Rajasthan and Gujarat has emerged as “Seed spice bowl” and together contributes more than 80 percent of total seed spices.

Burgeoning population exerts pressure on limited precious natural resources for enhancing production of food, fodder and fuel. In order to meet out increasing demand for food, fruit, vegetables, oilseeds, fodder and timber wood for burgeoning population, it is necessary to utilize each unit of natural rsesource very efficiently. The productivity of the precious natural resources is to be enhanced per unit time per unit area by agronomic ally managing stresses soil and land ecosystem to harvest more benefit. The cropping system as well as intercropping system practised by using different trees, fruits, vegetables, crops are the very efficient enterprises for realising higher productivity of natural resources available with in specified ecosystem.

Like in other crops, international research centres can contribute substantially towards solving the problems that limit ornamentals production because several research constraints are global in nature and need the research support by well staffed and adequately equipped research centres, which can make the work of national research programmes more efficient and accelerate the development of solutions. These international research centres can build a critical mass of scientists that is very important for effective research. It has almost established that successful research in individual crops has usually required the team efforts of specialists working in a range of disciplines like genetics, breeding, agronomy, physiology, pathology, entomology, economics, soils, statistics and chemistry, etc. These research centres are required to 1) Serve as catalyst for change 2) Collect, evaluate, maintain and utilize germplasm, 3) Generate and disseminate information 4) Provide training 5) Stimulate the formation of critical mass for research and 6) Assist national programmes achieving desired goals faster and more efficiently.

Crops that are not part of the customary diet of the local population and grown primarily for their high cash values and export potential are categorized as non- traditional. Non-traditional crops are usually cultivated on low acreage, crops such as ethnic fruits and vegetables, culinary and medicinal herbs, plants for industrial uses etc. are usually considered as non-traditional fruit crops. A non traditional crop may be new to a region or simply new to the grower. Many times non-traditional crops are cultivated to adapt to changing trends in agriculture and demographics.

For growing non-traditional crop proper planning is required to build a comprehensive business case. Realistic assessment of the potential risks and gains is necessary before actual implementation. All aspects of non-traditional crop production, including the agronomics of growing the crop, potential food safety and regulatory issues and marketing needs to be reviewed. Experience of producing conventional crops may not necessarily be directly applicable in producing non-traditional crops.

The term ‘Horticulture’ is derived from two Latin words, Hortus meaning Garden and Cultura meaning Cultivation. In ancient days the gardens had protected enclosures with high walls or similar structures surrounding the houses. The enclosed places were used to grow fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants. Horticulture differs from agriculture and forestry in specializing the cultivation of garden crops. The garden crops include fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamental trees, spices, plantations, medicinal and aromatic plants. Horticultural crops do not give food grains. The products of horticultural crops such as fruits and vegetables are highly perishable so that they are utilized in the fresh state. In general horticultural crops need more intensive cultivation (i.e. need more work) than the agricultural crops.

Special Features of Horticulture

As horticultural crops generally need intensive cultivation, they require a large input, capital, labour and technology per unit area of land.

Many cultural operations are specific to horticultural crops. The cultural operations such as propagation, fertilization, training, pruning, harvesting and marketing are skilled operations and these are specific to horticultural crops.

Mostly the horticultural products are utilized in the fresh state and are highly perishable.

Most of the horticultural crops are the rich sources of vitamins and minerals.

Gratification or aesthetic sense is an exclusive phenomenon for horticultural science.

Theophrastus gave the name “ORCHIDS” to the group of bizarre plants on the basis of the resemblance of paired underground tubers of these plants to masculine anatomy. This resemblance was also responsible for the mistaken belief that the orchids posses aphrodisiac properties and eating of underground tubers might “provoke venus” and they may be get male children. The appreciation of orchid beauty has a very long history in both the Western and Eastern cultures. Much of this is attributed to the diverse form and structure of orchids and the large number of species in the orchid family. Orchidaceae is amongst the most diverse family of the flowering plants consisting of 35,000 species under 880 genera (Kumar and Sheela, 2007, Fay and Chase, 2009). Orchids belong to the highest level of organization and are distinguished by the complicated biology of reproduction with long developmental cycle (Vakhrameeva et al., 1991, Sherif et al., 2012). They are beautiful and exotic perennial herbs grown in both north and south hemispheres. They exhibit an incredible range of diversity in size, shape and colour of flowers. Its flowers have lustrous, translucent petals rich in variegated colors and fragrances. Generally Orchids can grow at different elevations (Kumar and  Sheela, 2007).

1.1 Importance

Perfumes, essential oils and aroma are some of the products which indicate religious values, living standards, personality development for personal use and adornment from years back. The Vedic literatures also indicate the presence of perfumes and aromatics and were used for religious purposes as well as medicinal purposes. The word perfume has been used today to describe scented mixtures and is derived from the Latin word, “per fumum”, meaning through smoke. Perfumery has been one of the Indian arts and was a famous centre for perfume and perfume products. The essential oil means a class of volatile odoriferous oils, obtained from raw material of botanical source that impart the plant odour and other characteristic properties derived through distillation (usually with water or steam) or expression and obtained in the form of an oily liquid. The oils extracted through expression are some time called “Expression oils”. The aromatic substances being used from the Vedic period are defined as those plants which possess odoriferous steam volatile constituent’s (essential oil) in them.

Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia and USA are the major producers of aromatic materials. China is becoming increasingly important as a primary source and a very large quantity of aromatics and flowers as raw material is available. European Union and Switzerland are the main world markets for aromatics and also has established as a largest consumer of essential oils. The world’s largest importer of aromatic materials is the USA followed by Japan. The latter accounts for about 10% of world demand especially for lemon, clove, orange, peppermint and cedar wood oil.

India exports essential oils of lemongrass, mint, sandalwood, palmarosa, cardamom, ginger and eucalyptus in adequate quantity under AGMARK certification. But, for a better export quality there is a need to study the customer requirements, quality assurance and standards to keep pace with International market, Total Quality Management (TQM) through adulteration detection and modern analysis techniques with economic marketing channels.

India possesses a number of resources as plant parts, ample land and varied climatic conditions with low production costs but the essential oil producers need to study the customer needs for a regular supply of best quality products at a competitive rates. Today, second important factor for successful competition is the quality assurance. The consumers, these days, are very much aware about the quality and safety of using perfumes, essential oils and other pharmaceutical products. The third most important point is the packaging which attracts the consumers most of the times. Proper packaging along with an attractive label is always a plus point for the marketing of any product. Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) and Good Manfacturing Practices (GMP’s) are the quality assurance systems which continuously controls and regulate the quality production of commodities, needs strict enforcement. ISO 9000, TQM and ISO 14000 series are the some of quality management organizations, working for the development of quality standards.

Like many other beautiful plants, Bougainvillea has been chosen as the symbol of a host of countries, regions and municipalities. It is the National Flower of the Caribbean Nation of Granada and the United States territory of Guam. It is also the official flower of several counties in Taiwan and Malaysia. In the United States, Bougainvillea is the floral symbol of three California cities (Camarillo, Laguna Niguel and San Clemente). Bougainvillea spectabilis: Paper Flower; Common name: Bougainvillea; Scientific name: Bougainvillea spp.; Hindi: Baganvilas (Booganbel); Manipuri : Cherei; Bengali : Baganbilash; Marathi: Bougainvillea (Booganvel); Konkani: Bouganvila; Telegu: Bogam Malle (Kagithala Puvvu); Malaysia: Bunga kertas, buganvil, buginvila;  Indonesia: kembang kertas; China: Ye Zi Hua; Spain: Bouganvilla, Aka Buganvilla; Mexico and Philippines: Bugambilia; Honduras: Napoleon; Colombia, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Costa Rica and Panama: Veranera; Colombia, Cuba, Panama, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic and Venezuela: Trinitaria; Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay: Santa Rita; Northern Peru: Papelillo.

Climate Change has emerged as one of the most serious environmental concerns of recent times. The most imminent climate change is increase in atmospheric temperature due to increased levels of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O) and hydrochlorofluoro carbons (HCFCs). Because of increasing concentrations of the greenhouse gases in atmosphere, there is much concern about future changes in the climate system viz., Atmosphere, Lithosphere, Biosphere, Hydrosphere and Cryosphere. Direct or indirect effects on the society linked sectors like water, forestry, agriculture, animal agriculture, fisheries, land and marine biodiversity and health due to climate change/variability are many-fold and economic impact of climate change is enormous. The recurrent drought and desertification threaten seriously the livelihood of over 1.2 billion people who depend on land for most of their needs.

Flowers attract both young and old alike. They are associated with mankind from the dawn of civilization. These have become an integral part of human life in the modern era.
 
The Indian floriculture industry has been shifting from traditional flowers to cut flowers and dry flowers for export purposes. The liberalized economy has given an impetus to the Indian entrepreneurs for establishing export oriented floriculture units under controlled climatic conditions. About 60,000 hectares, area is under floriculture at present. During nineties, increasing demands for flowers in world market was coupled with production technology available abroad for high quality flowers.

Association of human beings with plants is much older than the dawn of civilization. Use of plants as source of food, cloth and shelter started first for fulfilling basic needs. Aesthetic use by way of growing flowers and ornamental plants came much later. Gradually, it was felt that ornamental plants need to be grown in a systematic manner and that yielded the concept of designing gardens. With the advancement of time, gardening styles metamorphosed in various ways influenced by climatic conditions, geographic locations, rulers and most predominantly by people. At present, plants and gardens are part and parcel of our daily life. The scope of developing gardens is simply enormous, be it home, office, institute, temple, factory, ‘samadhi sthal’ etc. Growing plants and developing gardens are now considered a necessity wherever scope exists.

Flowers, the aesthetic creations of God over the earth and symbolize beauty, purity, peace and love. Flowers have been associated with progress and prosperity from ancient times. They have long been associated with each civilization and culture in the world, and are integral part of traditional, religious ceremonies and rituals and no function, from birth till death, are complete without the use of flowers. They play a cardinal role in human behaviour and culture, bringing tranquility and peace of mind. Sensory elements of flowers like fragrance, colour, texture, softness, freshness, etc. influence human psyche in different manner.

From a symbol of love, flowers have transformed into an industry generating both income as well as employment. In the flower industry, significant changes are occurring in the competitive relationships worldwide due to increasing habit of “saying it with flowers” to celebrate major life events, expressing emotions in ways that words are deficient. Estimate of the annual consumption of commercially grown flower vary by source and range from 40-60 billion USD. Global exports over the last few years have grown by more than 10 per cent annually. Flower growing and its value addition viz., essential oils, natural dye extraction, dry flowers, floral ornaments, bouquets and artistic garlands, etc. is associated with variety of employment generation activities. Besides the traditional centres of production, new production centres are also developing.

In the beginning, human kind selected some of the useful wild flowers and brought them to gardens for decoration; mainly used for their floral and other values. The rose, which is an high value flower today, has long history, perhaps older than man. Carnation was grown in Greece during 300 B. C. Orchids were known for their attractive flowers and scent in China about 2500 years ago as mentioned by Confucius. Chrysanthemum is the another oldest flower grown in China as early as 500 B. C. At the time of Confucius, only a wild single-flowered type was known in chrysanthemum. Later on many new varieties arose and in Japan, the flower reached a high stage of development and popularity. From Japan, the chrysanthemum spread to Europe. Now some of the best known modern varieties have been developed in Europe, America, and Australia. Lotus, an aquatic ornamental flower, is native to India and is associated with religion, art and culture of Indian civilization. Eloquent references to the aesthetics of these ornaments are available from ancient literature and sculptures. Most of the garden flowers were introduced into Europe for cultivation from their wild habitats between 16^th and 19^th centuries.

Horticultural crops include the fruit crops, vegetables, spices, plantation crops, medicinal plants, aromatic plants, commercial flower crops and ornamental plants.

Knowledge on the methods by which these reproduce is of primary importance from the standpoint of plant breeding. Besides, their annual or perennial nature also decides the methods of breeding to be adopted to get desired improvement.

Two divisions of methods of reproduction commonly recognized are:

1. Asexual i.e. vegetative parts of the plants are utilized to produce new individuals.

2. Sexual i.e. gametic fusion, the resultant zygote develops into seed which is utilized to produce new individual.

This group can be further placed in several sub divisions according to the mode of pollination. They are

a. Naturally self pollinated crop - (e.g. tomato, pepper, brinjal) wherein cross pollination occurs less than 4 % only.

b. Often cross pollinated crop- (e.g. chillies, bhendi) wherein though self pollination is more frequent, cross- pollination may occur so frequently that some methods of preventing cross pollination between varieties and strains of different genotypic constitution must be followed throughout the breeding programme.
Common breeding methods can be applied to the above two groups, however, the parents chosen for breeding under often cross pollinated crop need to be selfed for few generations to select desirable, homozygous lines.

1.1 Weather

Firstly, what is weather? Simply, the conditions in the atmosphere above the earth is called weather. It refers to the conditions such as wind, rain and temperature, prevailing at a particular location during periods of hours or days. We often ask “what’s the weather like today”? Any individual can answer to this question as it requires only a short term experience or say exposure to the atmosphere. The TV news forecasters predict weather each day and inform about the temperature, cloudiness, humidity, or possibility of storm in the next few days. Weather is localised, say, it’s a hot and cloudy weather in one part of the country and dry and windy on the other part.

1.1.1 What are the factors that influence weather?

Before we try to understand the factors that influence weather, we must understand what the components that describe a weather conditions are? Is it the rains, or the air temperature or both? The answer to this question is not so easy, and it’s a bit complicated. There are many components that constitute weather. Weather components include rain, cloud cover, sunshine, winds, hail, snow, sleet, storms, thunderstorms, heat waves and many more. These components are sometimes referred as weather parameters or climate elements. Each of these components define weather patterns of a particular area. These components determine the status of local atmospheric conditions. Again, as a basic definition, weather is the state of the atmosphere and majority of weather phenomena occur in the lowest layer of the atmosphere, called as the troposphere. Does it mean that ground conditions such as the topography, water bodies and vegetation of a particular area has nothing to do with it? No, it is not so. The state of the atmosphere is subjected to various processes taking place not only in the atmosphere but also in the ocean, the sea-ice, the vegetation, etc. Weather parameters or the components of weather form a sequence of events, and the influences are far reaching and they do not remain solely in the atmosphere. For example, terrestrial radiation impacts the air temperature, air pressure and humidity. The terrestrial location also influences the cloud formation. The clouds may or may not turn into precipitation depending on the outcome (cloud or rain), which is by and large governed by troposphere. Likewise, a lack of precipitation affects not only weather conditions, but also soil moisture conditions that may result in lowering of water levels (ground water table) in soil. Wind speed and direction are governed by the atmospheric pressure and air temperature. So, all these parameters or components are interrelated and the weather conditions are the outcome of their interactions. Therefore, we can say that, the three main components of weather are temperature, precipitation and solar radiation. These components are influenced by different factors.

Among the vast resources of plants, aromatic and medicinal plants are highly beneficial to mankind for supplying medicines and essence. Olfactory gland bearing aromatic plants are few and many of them are located mainly in tropics and sub-tropics. Ecological conditions in the tropics are so conducive for such plants that out of 75,000 edible plants, majority are found in this region. (Chai et al., 1979, Jong, 1979)

Among the aromatic plants, kewda (Pandanus fascicularis Lam.), a common species of screwpine, is commercially important for its highly aromatic male spadices used in the production of highly prized kewda perfumes. Kewda attar, water and oil (rooh kewda) are the important perfumery products. Kewda attar blends well with most of the fancy perfumes, in preparation of lotions, cosmetics, soaps, hair oils, agarbatis (incense sticks), scenting clothes and flavouring betel masala, chewing tobacco and bouquets. Kewda water is used for flavouring various foods, confectionaries, sweets, syrups and soft drinks. The oil and attar are considered as stimulant, antispasmodic and administered for headache and rheumatism (Chopra et al., 1956). The kewda is mentioned frequently in Tamil classics as having flowers which neutralize the foul fish odour pervading the sea coast with their strong perfume. Jehangir in his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, described kewda flower for its strong and penetrating scent, which even obscures that of musk (Gandhi, 1989).

Odisha state lying between 17^o 52′ N to 22^o 45′ N latitude and 81^o 50′ E to 87^o 50′ E longitude has a prosperous agriculture. Nearly 75 % of its working population are either cultivators or agricultural labourers and remaining 25 % are engaged in the categories of household industry and other works (Anonymous, 1988). The wastelands occupy 13.79 % of the total area of Odisha and are mostly scattered throughout the state. The areas of wastelands in the state mainly accounted for the hilly slopes, degraded forests, over grazed revenue wastelands, oil eroded valleys, drought stricken pastures, saline and marshy lands, etc. The changes in land use leading to creation of wastelands include overgrazing forest degradation and development of marginal cropland due to flood, drought and soil erosion etc. (Fig. 1).

The word ‘horticulture’ was first conceived by Peter Laurinburg. In an English language, the word horticulture used for the first time in 1678 in a book entitled “New World of Words” by Phillips. The term HORTICULTURE is resultant of two Latin words i.e. HORTUS meaning GARDEN and CULTURA meaning CULTIVATION.

The Latin term ‘Garden’ meaning to enclose. In past, the garden had protection with with walls or other similar structures. Such protected places were used to grow fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants. When fruits are grown in a definite area, that area is called as an ‘orchard’. Thus, horticulture refers to cultivation of garden plants in protected enclosures. It is an aesthetic science deals with the garden crops. Such as growing of vegetable crops in vegetable gardens; fruit crops in fruit gardens. The most distinguished character between horticulture and agriculture is that horticulture deals with small scale gardening and usually in enclosed gardens although this is not a necessity, while agriculture is done on large scale with extensive crop cultivation.

India has a unique social and cultural setting with diverse people, culture and religions. It is one of the oldest and greatest civilizations of the world. Geographically India extends snow clad Himalayan mountains in the north to the tropical rain forests of the south. It is the 7th largest country in the world and well recognised in Asia by its mountains, seas, deserts, and vast stretch of fertile plain land, which give the country a distinct geographical identity.

India has a very rich, diverse religious and cultural heritage. The four main religions of India are - Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and Sikhism. Hinduism is the largest religion in India, with approximately 80% of the population is Hindu while Islam (Muslim) is the second-largest religion having 14% (approx.) share.

Religion in India is characterised by the diversity of religious beliefs and practices. In Indian history, religion has been an important part of the country's culture. Indian subcontinent is the birthplace of four of the world's major religions, namely, Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism, which are collectively known as native Indian religions and represent 83% of the total population of India approximately.

Hinduism

Hinduism is the main Indian religion. It is considered as a religious and universal order, a way of life which followed by the people who believed in Hinduism. The word ‘Hindu’ refers group of particular people who believes and follow Hinduism, the oldest religion in the world. It has also been described as ‘Sanatana dharma’.

Ornamental horticulture is the branch of horticulture concerned with cultivating plants of all kinds for show and to satisfy the eye rather than for food (Bailey, 1960). It includes floriculture, the culture of trees for shades, display and landscape gardening. Gill (1988) defined taxonomy as a study aimed at producing a system of classification of biological organisms, which best reflects the totality of their similarities and differences. According to
him, there are three inter-related aspects of taxonomy namely: Identification, Nomenclature and Classification. Identification deals with the determination of a taxon as being identical or similar to another and already known organisms. Nomenclature on the other hand has to do with determination of the correct name for the organisms and is governed by International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. It permits only a single valid name for each plant. Classification is the placing of plants in groups or categories according to particular plan or system.
The objectives of taxonomy are to provide: a convenient method of identifying, naming and describing plants, a classification which as far as possible express the natural relationships of organisms, detect evolution at work, discovering its processes and interpreting its results, an inventory of plant resources-local, regional and continental and to provide an integrating and unifying role in the training of biology.

H orticultural crops are most important ones incurring huge amount of pesticides in our country. The intensity of esticides on them is highest per unit area. However research on integrated pest management has not matched the progress and problems of plant protection at large and protected cultivation in particular. The USA, UK, Israel and Russia, pioneers in protected cultivation, are able to harvest productivity of up to 500 tonnes/ha of tomato and 200 tonnes/ha each of cucumber and capsicum, while in India up to 300 tonnes/ha of tomato and 100 tonnes/ha each of cucumber and capsicum are obtained, has compared to normal open field where their yield ranges from 40 to 60 and 10 to 20 tonnes/ha in India, respectively.

The sustainability of an agro-ecosystem is represented by its ability to maintain a given level of productivity over time and a given quantitative-qualitative level of environmental resources (Loucks, 1977). The greenhouse is also a form of agro-ecosystem, where unlike other agro-ecosystems, environment has been adapted to crop in order to maximize its productivity. The greenhouse system has to take maximum advantage of natural benefits offered by location in certain latitudes while minimizing the disadvantages (Castilla, 2002). Higher productivity under such protected cultivation is attainable mainly on account of reduced competition, healthy environment, better nutrient management, increased surface area and longer crop duration. However, ideal and stable environment with warm, humid and abundant food under protected conditions provides an excellent platform for pest development often more than open field crops, leading to severe pest situations in greenhouses, as revealed by extensive surveys.

A family of about 66 genera and over 2,244 species, Iridaceae are distributed in both tropical and temperate regions with the chief centres of distribution in tropical America and South Africa. Chief areas of distribution in India are Kashmir, and Kumanon hills. Common species cultivated in Indian gardens include Belamcanda chinensis, Crocus sativus, C. biflorus, C. speciosa, Gladiolus primulinus, G. colvillei, Freesia refracta, Iris kumaonensis, I. germanica and I. foetidissima. Iridaceae are cultivated throughout the world for their beautiful flowers.
Gladiolus ‘the queen of bulbous flowers’ is one of the most important bulbous ornamentals grown commercially in all parts of the world for its attractive flowers. It is very much liked for its majestic spikes containing attractive,
elegant and delicate florets which open in sequence over a long duration and hence, has good keeping quality of cut spikes. These are extensively employed as cut flower in herbaceous borders, individual beds in the gardens, for exhibition, as pot plants for various kinds of interior decoration and for making bouquets. North American Gladiolus Council, Boston established in 1910 (www.gladworld.org), and New England Gladiolus Society (www.britglad. com), came into existence during post war era (1945-55), are actively involved in popularization and improvement of gladiolus in tune with flourishing cut flower trade in western countries.

INTRODUCTION

Irises are among the easiest of perennials to grow, providing an abundance of beauty with minimum care. Iris means ‘rainbow’ because they come in various colours. These are herbs with sword like leaves and roots are generally rhizomatous, although in a few species they are bulbous. The majority of garden irises are hybrid, often complex ones, whose parentage is obscene. Bulbous irises are more important in commercial horticulture, with over 50 cultivars, but dominated almost equally by two i.e. Ideal and Professor Blaauw which together account for over 70% of the area grown in the Netherlands. Regular irises make great cut flowers with their tall, sturdy stalks. Dwarf varieties are suited for flower beds and rock gardens.

Certain irises were at one time widely used in the manufacture of perfume, also has been widely used in folk medicine, mostly because of the fragrance of its dried roots which are used in the preparation of face powder and dentifrices. Commercially, the powder is known as Orris-root or Orris. The rhizomes of certain irises also have edible value.

Water is one of the most vital components for the successful growth and development of crops. It influences most of the plant metabolic activities, namely photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation utilization of mineral nutrients, etc. Its stress or in excess affects the growth and development of a plant directly and consequently its yield and quality.

Role of water: Water plays an important role in plant growth and development in many ways.

• It is the chief constituent of protoplasm.
• It provides aqueous medium for various biochemical (metabolic) reactions.
• It serves as a temperature stabilizer and helps in maintaining a stable metabolic rate.
• It is an essential input for photosynthesis.
• It helps to maintain turgidity of cells and plant organs.
• It is an excellent solvent for various organic materials of cells.

Water is an extremely essential component in plant growth and development. It is of utmost importance for photosynthesis, cell division, cell growth / elongation, respiration, nutrient uptake, mineral utilization and much other metabolic process, which directly affect the quantity and quality of the produce. Hence quantity and quality of water play a vital role in performance of a crop. A well distributed water supply, throughout the growth of plant is essential. Rainfall is the major source of water for the crops. Rainfall recharges the surface water resources such as rivers, streams and ponds and also the ground water resources like wells.

Syn.cordifolia Cogn.,C.indica Wight and Arn,Bryonia grandisL. Family.Cucurbitaceae) is an aggressively climbing vine that  spreads quickly over trees, shrubs, fences or other supports. It is also called  scarlet fruited gourd or little gourd. The name is derived from the Latin coccineus, meaning scarlet,in reference to fruit colour (Wagner et al.,1999). Vernacular names are kundru (hindi), kovakka, kova (malayalam), kovakkai, kovai(tamil), thondakayi (kannada), dondakaya (telugu). Coccinia shoot is a good source of calcium, iron, and fiber and has good texture (Anon., 2002). It is grown mostly in homestead farms for tender fruits in almost all regions of the country. It bears fruits almost through out the year where mild winter prevails. In regions where severe winter occurs, it bears fruit for 8-9 months. Although this is considered as a an under utilized vegetable, it is grown extensively in Chattisgarh, West Bengal, Bihar and Karnataka on a commercial scale and giving remunerative returns to  farmers. Availability of better cultivars and knowledge of  many other preparations and uses of this crop can propel its evolution from an under utilized species to an important horticultural crop in Indian Agriculture.

Ivy gourd (Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt), a climbing, herbaceous perennial plant in family Cucurbitaceae, grows well under hot-humid conditions. The genus name is derived from the Latin coccineus, which means scarlet in reference to the fruit color. Thus, it is also called scarlet-fruited gourd. Other vernacular names are: little gourd in English, courge écarlate in French, pepino cimarrón in Spanish, tam leung or phak tam leung in Thai, kundree or kundru in Hindi, pepasan in Malay, hong-gua in Chinese, and tindori in East Africa (Schippers, 2002; MMPND, 2007; USDA, 2007). The plant is often collected wild or cultivated in home gardens in tropical Asia, and its tender shoots are consumed as potherb (Wasantwisut and Viriyapanich, 2003). Bundled tender shoots of ivy gourd in the village market setting are common scenes in Southeast Asia (Boonkerd et al., 1993; Engle et al., 1998). The fruit of its sweet type cultivar is also used widely as a vegetable in India (Ramachandran and Subramaniam, 1983; Sarnaik et al., 2001; Bharathi, 2007). Ivy gourd has a potential to be a valuable vegetable in the tropics to diversify cropping system in peri-urban and urban agriculture, and to improve diet and health, especially where vitamin A deficiency is of developing concern.

Ixora is an ornamental plant which is a medium-sized, tropical flowering, evergreen shrub that is used in landscapes. The genus Ixora belongs to the family Rubiaceae. The plants have glossy green leaves which are arranged oppositely along each stem. All Ixoras produce clusters of star-shaped flowers on stem tips or terminal growth. They are grown for their beautiful flowers which bloom in summer in clusters of different shades of red, pink or yellow (De Block, 1998 and Husain and Paul, 1988). The colour of the wild flowers is red or reddish-orange but ornamental varieties may have white, yellow, salmon or pink flowers. It is commonly known as West Indian Jasmine. The other common names of this plant are Jungle Geranium, Flame of the Woods, Jungle Flame, Burning Love, Red Ixora, Ixora, Amor Ardiente, Cruz de Malta, Dola de Coral, Equisosea and Rajana (Griffiths,1994 and Liogier,1997), Rangan, Kheme, Ponna, Chann Tanea, Techi, Pan, Santan, Jarum-Jarum and many more. Members of Ixora prefer acidic soil and are suitable for bonsai (Frommer, 2001). I. coccinea is used extensively for landscaping and is also grown as a potted ornamental (Lakshmanan et al., 1997). Ixora coccinea and Ixora parviflora are generally used as the ornamental plants in gardens and parks.

Ixora is an ornamental plant which is a medium-sized, tropical flowering, evergreen shrub that is used in landscapes. The genus Ixora belongs to the family Rubiaceae. The plants have glossy green leaves which are arranged oppositely along each stem. All Ixoras produce clusters of star-shaped flowers on stem tips or terminal growth. They are grown for their beautiful flowers which bloom in summer in clusters of different shades of red, pink or yellow (De Block, 1998 and Husain and Paul, 1988). The colour of the wild flowers is red or reddish-orange but ornamental varieties may have white, yellow, salmon or pink flowers. It is commonly known as West Indian Jasmine. The other common names of this plant are Jungle Geranium, Flame of the Woods, Jungle Flame, Burning Love, Red Ixora, Ixora, Amor Ardiente, Cruz de Malta, Dola de Coral, Equisosea and Rajana (Griffiths,1994 and Liogier,1997), Rangan, Kheme, Ponna, Chann Tanea, Techi, Pan, Santan, Jarum-Jarum and many more. Members of Ixora prefer acidic soil and are suitable for bonsai (Frommer, 2001). I. coccinea is used extensively for landscaping and is also grown as a potted ornamental (Lakshmanan et al., 1997). Ixora coccinea and Ixora parviflora are generally used as the ornamental plants in gardens and parks.

It is also a popular choice for hedges in parts of South East Asia like Thailand. Red Ixora flowers are commonly used in Hindu worship as well as in Indian folk medicine. The flowers, leaves, roots and the stems are used to treat various ailments in the Indian traditional system of medicine, the Ayurveda. The fruits are used as a dietary source. The plant possesses antioxidative, antibacterial, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, antidiarrhoeal, antinociceptive, antimutagenic, antineoplastic and chemopreventive effects. The oil extracted from the flowers is helpful in conditions like scabies, eczema, pruritis and other skin infections. It is also used for hedges and borders and planted as an indoor potted plant. In laboratory tests, extracts of Jungle Geranium have shown anti-bacterial (Kumer et al., 1997) and anti-tumour (Serrame and Lim-Sylianco, 1995 and Latha and Panikkar, 2000) activity. From a methanol extract of the flowers, 13 chemicals were identified including ursolic acid which has known antitumor and antiviral activity (Monteath et al., 2001). In the traditional medicine of India, infusions of the leaves and juice from the roots are used to treat a wide variety of ailments including dysentery, ulcers, and gonorrhea (Parrotta, 2001).

Ixora is an evergreen flowering shrub valued for its attractive clusters of brightly coloured flowers and its suitability for loose flower production, religious offerings, garlands and landscaping. The crop performs well under tropical and subtropical conditions and is appreciated for its extended flowering period. This chapter presents the botanical characteristics, origin, distribution, genetics and important varieties of Ixora. It discusses suitable climate and soil conditions, propagation, land preparation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation and cultural practices. Special attention is given to pruning and canopy management for improving flowering. The chapter also covers important insect pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest handling and yield, providing practical guidance for commercial Ixora production.

The jackfruit tree or jack or simply known as jak (Artocarpus heterophyllus) belongs to the mulberry family (Moraceae) and its fruit, jackfruit, is known as the “poor-man's food” (Bose, 1985; Haq, 2006; Ramanani and Rao, 2001; Rowe-Dutton, 1976; Sonwalkar, 1951; Verheji and Coronel, 1992). It is believed to be native to Southwestern India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka (Answers.com, 2009). It is possibly also native to the Philippines and also East to the Malay Peninsula. The fruit is large, oval and covered with a thick rind that has hexagonal protrusions. Inside the fruit, we find the yellow, fleshy and banana-flavoured carpel or large "bulbs" (which are botanically the perianths) massed among narrow ribbons of thin, tough undeveloped perianths (or perigones), around a central, pithy core. Each bulb encloses a smooth, oval, light-brown coloured "seed" (endocarp) covered by a thin white membrane (exocarp).

Introduction
Jasmine is commonly known as Chameli, Champa, Juhi, Mogra, and Motia in India. French jasmine, Spanish jasmine and Catalonian jasmine are also found in India. It consisted of both as vines/climbers and shrubs.
Origin
‘Jasminum’ word is derived from an Arabic word ‘Yasmin.’ It is native to the Himalayas and mostly found in tropical and sub-tropical regions. It originated in the north-east foothills of Himalayas in Indo-Burma. It is known
for characteristic smell and beautiful colours of flowers for our indoor as well as outdoor gardening. Jasmines are a group of ornamental domesticated plants, grown perennial for their fragrant flowers. However, its potential for production of perfume has also been first exploited in France.
Distribution
It was first introduced on commercial scale for production of essential oil in Egypt, Morocco, South Africa, Syria, Algeria, Tunisia, United Arab Republic, China and India. Keeping in view the manual picking of flowers, it is labour
based agro-industry. Presently,

Jasmine (Jasminum spp) is one of the oldest fragrant flowers cultivated by man. They are the most common flowers in India gardens.

Importance and Uses

They are traditionally important flowers not only as fresh flowers but also as source of high grade perfume oil. Mention of jasmine is there in ancient Indian literature like Kamasutra (AD 300-400) and Mahabharatha (500 BC). The odour of jasmine flowers cannot be imitated by any known synthetic chemical or natural isolates, thus giving it a unique status in the perfume world.

Jasmine (Jasminum spp.) belongs to the family Oleaceae, order Oleales are climbing, trailing or erect shrubby plants and there are both deciduous and evergreen species. The generic name Jasminum is derived from Arabic word “Jassamine”, “Jasmin” and “Jasminum” (Bailey, 1963). Flowers are white, yellow or rarely reddish. Flowers are used for making garlands and Veni. Jamine oil extracted from the flower is highly valued in perfumery industry. France, The Netherlands, Italy, Belgium, Algeria, Turkey, Morocco and Tunisia are major jasmine oil producing countries (Singh, 2006).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Jasmine is native to tropical and subtropical regions; a large number of species are centred on the regions comprising India, China and Malaysia. Jasmines distributed in warm parts of Europe, Asia, Africa and Pacific region, nearly absent from America (Bailey, 1963).

Jasmines have adorned the gardens of central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, Nepal and many other tropical and sub tropical countries. The distribution patterns of nearly 72 species in India, Malaysia and China provide a strong base to claim that India is one of the principal centers of origin of Jasminum species. Among these, about 40 species are reported to occur in India and mostly cultivated in South India (Bhattacharjee, 1980). Large number of species are however, centered to the region comprising of The Himalayas, China and Malaysia. Other countries where jasmine is cultivated are France, Italy, Morocco, Algeria, North Africa, Spain and Egypt. The cultivated jasmines fall into four species viz., Jasminum sambac, Jasminum auriculatum, Jasminum grandiflorum, and Jasminum multiflorum (Kakada).

In India, the three species Jasminum sambac, Jasminum auriculatum and Jasminum grandiflorum have been mentioned in the ancient Tamil Literature of ‘Sangam’ period (500 B.C. to 200 A.D.). Jasmines are commercially grown in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Other growing states are Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

INTRODUCTION

Jasmine is one of the first plants that come to mind when one thinks of sweet fragrance. A single jasmine vine can perfume an entire room or garden. Jasmines have adorned the gardens of central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, Nepal and many other tropical and sub tropical countries. India exports jasmine flowers to the neighbouring countries like Srilanka, Singapore, Malaysia and also the Gulf. Jasmine contributes substantially to the national economy and annually about Rs. 20 crores worth of flowers are produced in India.

Plants are grown both as shrub and climber. Flowers and flower buds are used for making garlands, bouquets and veni and for religious offerings. Jasmine oil extracted from the flower is highly valued as it is used in manufacturing perfumes, cosmetics, creams, hair oils, soaps and shampoos. Flowers are used in jasmine tea or herbal or black tea. As a medicinal plant, jasmine has traditionally been considered an aphrodisiac and calmative. In India, it is grown in different states especially Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal because their flower and floral buds are in great demand.

Abstract: Genus Jasminum contains 90 species to be true in existence and use, range from landscape to hair adornments, and perfumes. It is native to Indo-Malayan region. Morphological variants from different species have been developed in different regions in India. Unfruitfulness, cross incompatibility, pollen and seed sterility, delicate flower parts, peak and active night flowering, endosperm antagonism often pose significant challenge to breeders. Genetic information and trait heritability is almost unknown for this crop. Phenotypic traits requiring future improvement include recurrent flowering for fresh flower market, high concrete recovery, biotic and abiotic stress tolerance. Future breeding and genetic studies are needed for further transform this crop.

Introduction

Plants are grown both as shrub and climber. Flowers and flower buds are used for making garlands and Veni and for religious offerings. Jasmine oil extracted from the flower is highly valued as it is used in manufacturing perfumes, cosmetics, creams, hair oils, soaps and shampoos.

Flowers are used in jasmine tea or herbal or black tea. As a medicinal plant, jasmine has traditionally been considered an aphrodisiac and calmative. In India, it is grown in different states especially Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal because their flower and floral buds are in great demand.

Genetics

The genus with basic chromosome number of n=13 generally consists of forms with 2n=26. However, natural occurrence of higher ploidy was also observed in J. sambac cv. Gundumalli (2n=39), cultivated variety of J. flexile (2n=52), J. primulinum (2n=39) and J. angustifolium (2n=52).

Jasmine is one of India’s most important fragrant loose flower crops, valued for garlands, Veni, Gajra, religious ceremonies, festivals and perfume production. Flowers and buds are also important raw materials for jasmine oil, cosmetics, soaps and other fragrance products. The chapter describes jasmine’s origin, distribution, genetics and commercially cultivated species, particularly Jasminum sambac, J. auriculatum and J. grandiflorum. It discusses climate and soil requirements, propagation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation, pruning and other cultural practices. Major pests and diseases and their management are included. The chapter also explains harvesting, postharvest handling, marketing and the value-addition potential of jasmine flowers and essential oil.