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Floriculture has become very important industry as a result of science based techniques and steady supply of improved plant materials. One of the major constraints of floriculture industry is non availability of large scale quality planting materials. Conventional methods of propagation can not meet the increasing demand of propagating materials. Micropropagation is perhaps the most widely used biotechnology tool for large scale propagation of floricultural crops. This economic proposition has led to intensive practical research to evolve tissue culture techniques for mass propagation and production of virus-free plant material.  Since most of the ornamental crops are highly heterozygous, their seed progeny is not true-to-type. Conventionally in these plants vegetative reproduction method is followed to produce genetically identical plants at commercial scale. But the main constrain of this method is that only a limited number of plants can be raised in a year from a single mother plant and often fail to meet the market demand. Therefore, most of the modern floriculturists follow the micropropagation technique for rapid multiplication of ornamental plants.

World trade of fresh cut flower is increasing day by day. Fresh flowers lose their freshness and quality both during travel and also during and after arrangements due to flower specific short vase life. Such deficiencies can be ameliorated through application of nutrient additives to vase water. Use of preservative solutions has been known for many years to increase the vase life of cut flowers. Different methods like use of holding, pulsing and bud opening solution, growth regulators, gamma irradiation, pre-cooling, cold storage, packaging etc. are already in practice in the flower trade to ensure the garden fresh quality of flowers to consumers (Singh et al., 2001). The floral business is expanding in a big way, nationwide.  Sales of cut flowers are rising faster through retailers as every state has entered into development of supermarket chains. Cut flower sale through retailers is  a booming business. Retail growers and Wholesale growers are the major players in our country for domestic market. Retail market suffers from logistic bottlenecks. Retailers do not have any background scientific knowledge to increase the vase life of cut flowers. Flower buyers are very choosy and prefer quality bloom with longer vase life.

New varieties of bougainvillea have been developed in India at different research institutions, nurseries, botanical societies and also by individual efforts. Details have been mentioned above. New varieties developed at CSIR-NBRI need special mention. 

CSIR-NBRI has developed a number of new varieties by using various available breeding tools viz. through spontaneous mutation, classical breeding, chromosome manipulation and induced mutation (Banerji 2007, 2008, Banerji and Datta 1986, 1988, 1993, 1996, Banerji et al., 1987, Data and Banerji 1990, 1994a,b, Datta 1992b, 2004, Nath et al., 1983, Ohri 1995, Sharma 1996, Zadoo et al., 1975b, Jayanti et al., 2007, Roy et al., 2015).

There are different crop specific societies in different countries for registering new varieties. This does not provide any intellectual property right. It serves as a documental proof of new variety, author, mode of origin, place and date. For example, there is The American Rose Society which serves as the International Cultivar Registration Authority for Roses; The Royal Horticultural Society, International Registration Authority for the genus Dahlia; Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi -110 012, India for Bougainvillea. Each society either follows the rules set forth by the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants or they are having their own rules and regulations for registration (Anonymous 1981, Choudhury 1973, Singh 1983, 1986, 1987, 1999, Singh et al., 1999, Sindhu 2015, Singh 2007). Newly evolved Bougainvilleas are being registered by the Division of Vegetable Crops and Floriculture, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, since 1966. A check list of all the existing important cultivars based on the available information from literature as well as from amateurs, professional traders and other sources from different countries are available.

As mentioned above Bougainvillea is one of the most widely grown important perennial ornamental shrubs with numerous attractive plant colour (leaf) and shape, and bract colours and shape. It is very popular for its multipurpose use. Inspite of beautiful bract colour it can not be enjoyed as cut flower as its shelf-life is very limited. Bracts start drooping within few minutes after cut from the main plant. Dehydration techniques have been developed at CSIR-N.B.R.I., Lucknow, by which flowers and foliage retain their fresh look for several months or even years after dehydration. Their original shapes, colour and size remain as they were before dehydration and, thus, making them highly suitable raw materials for interior decoration and may be enjoyed for a long time and can be used for any occasion. NBRI has standardized two methods viz. Press Drying and Embedding (drying through embedding in sand and silica gel and drying using hot air oven, microwave oven and solar cooker). Bougainvillea leaves and bracts can be dehydrated beautifully by both the methods and the dried products are utilized for preparation of different types of commercial decorative items. 

Flowers, the aesthetic creations of God over the earth and symbolize beauty, purity, peace and love. Flowers have been associated with progress and prosperity from ancient times. They have long been associated with each civilization and culture in the world, and are integral part of traditional, religious ceremonies and rituals and no function, from birth till death, are complete without the use of flowers. They play a cardinal role in human behaviour and culture, bringing tranquility and peace of mind. Sensory elements of flowers like fragrance, colour, texture, softness, freshness, etc. influence human psyche in different manner.

From a symbol of love, flowers have transformed into an industry generating both income as well as employment. In the flower industry, significant changes are occurring in the competitive relationships worldwide due to increasing habit of “saying it with flowers” to celebrate major life events, expressing emotions in ways that words are deficient. Estimate of the annual consumption of commercially grown flower vary by source and range from 40-60 billion USD. Global exports over the last few years have grown by more than 10 per cent annually. Flower growing and its value addition viz., essential oils, natural dye extraction, dry flowers, floral ornaments, bouquets and artistic garlands, etc. is associated with variety of employment generation activities. Besides the traditional centres of production, new production centres are also developing.

In the beginning, human kind selected some of the useful wild flowers and brought them to gardens for decoration; mainly used for their floral and other values. The rose, which is an high value flower today, has long history, perhaps older than man. Carnation was grown in Greece during 300 B. C. Orchids were known for their attractive flowers and scent in China about 2500 years ago as mentioned by Confucius. Chrysanthemum is the another oldest flower grown in China as early as 500 B. C. At the time of Confucius, only a wild single-flowered type was known in chrysanthemum. Later on many new varieties arose and in Japan, the flower reached a high stage of development and popularity. From Japan, the chrysanthemum spread to Europe. Now some of the best known modern varieties have been developed in Europe, America, and Australia. Lotus, an aquatic ornamental flower, is native to India and is associated with religion, art and culture of Indian civilization. Eloquent references to the aesthetics of these ornaments are available from ancient literature and sculptures. Most of the garden flowers were introduced into Europe for cultivation from their wild habitats between 16^th and 19^th centuries.

The concept of Centers of Origin given by Russian scientist N.I. Vavilov (1935) is based on his studies of vast collection of plants at the Institute of Plant Industry, Leningrad. According to him, crop plants evolved from wild species in the areas showing great diversity and termed them as primary Centers of Origin; but in some areas, certain crop species show considerable diversity of forms although they did not originate their, such areas are known as secondary Centers of Origin of these species. He identified 8 primary centers (Chinese, Indian, Inner Asiatic, Asia Minor, Mediterranean, Abyssinian, South Mexico, Central America and South America Andes Center) and three sub-centers (Indo-Malayan, Chilean and Brazilian-Paraguayan sub-center) of origin for crop plants. Basilevskaya (1960) first investigated the geographical origin of garden plants. Coats (1968) first stressed out the ornamental herbs whereas Hui-Lin-Li (1974) wrote about the introduction of woody plants. According to Tay (2007) survey of thirty common flowers and their related species show a similar pattern of concentrated occurrence of species in certain geographic regions.

Exploration and exploitation of gene centers need to be proceed with the systematic cooperation of taxonomists, geneticists and plant pathologists. The 17 centers of origin identified for different flower and ornamental crops are given (Table 2.1)

These centers coincide to a significant extent with the regions of the Conservation International’s Biodiversity Hot spots in the world. No one single country is self sufficient in all the germplasm of flowers. The centers of origin of ancient flowers from China and Turkey coincide with the Vavilov’s food crop centers of origin. Domestication of food crops might also lead to the domestication of those flowers. Flowers were part of crop weed complex from the beginning and those with beautiful flowers would have been selected for domestication.

Flowers are classified into three groups- self pollinated, often cross pollinated and cross pollinated- based on the extent of cross pollination which ranges from nil to 5 percent in self pollinated, 5-12 percent in often cross-pollinated and more than 12 percent in cross pollinated flowers. The information on extent of cross pollination is important to decide appropriate breeding methods to develop and improve the crop, to maintain genetic purity of seed, and to decide safe isolation distances from varieties, related species and related genera of the crop.

3.1 Autogamous (Self pollinated) flowers

When the egg in a flower gets fertilized by its own pollen, it is, referred to as autogamy. In statistical terms, it is, explained as the probability that egg gets fertilized by its own pollen as one. The coefficient of inbreeding which also measures the probability of selfing is also one in such crops. The genetic structure of autogamous flower is homozygous. The reasons for autogamy in flowers are essentially homomorphism, cleistogamy and chasmogamy. Homomorphism refers to uniformity in placement of essential floral parts, androecium and gynoecium e.g. Aster (double flowered), Balsam, Bells of Ireland, Carnation, Clianthus, Benghal dayflower (Commelina benghalensis), Gypsophila, Lupine, Salvia, Saponaria, Sweet pea and Sweet William. In autogamous ornamental crops, cross pollination in nature is almost negligible. Autogamous pollination may be of three types viz., autogamous selfing: refers to origin of pollen from anthers of the same flower; geitonogamous selfing refers to pollen from different flower on the same shoot or genet, and xenogamy, crossing refers to pollen from different flower on a shoot from another genet.

Growing of flowers in gardens was patronized by the rulers themselves earlier. Commercial production of flowers gathered momentum globally, efforts to breed new varieties of flower crops intensified in the 70s, and 80s primarily due to their high commercial value. With the advent of WTO followed by the Plant Breeder’s Rights, the commercial breeding efforts got intensified further. Domestication, introduction, selection, hybridization, mutation, and polyploidy breeding have played a major role in the evolution of the present day ornamental plants.

4.1 Brief historical account

Flowers have long been associated with each civilization and culture in the world. Numerous cultures have incorporated flowers into their everyday lives expressions of beauty and art. Flowers are used to celebrate major life events and to decorate graves, expressing emotions in ways that words are deficient.

In the beginning, human kind selected some of the useful wild flowers and brought them into gardens for domestication. They were used for their floral and other values. According to Theophrastus (372-287 BC), carnation was grown in Greece during 300 BC. It was used for medicinal purpose in France. Romans prepared dye from calendula flowers. During early days, Bells of Ireland (Moluccella laevis) was used as a vegetable, but now after much improvement, it is used as a cut flower. The rose, which is an important flower today, has long history, perhaps older than man. Orchids were known for their attractive appearance and fragrance in China about 2500 years ago as mentioned by Confucius. Man’s interest in cultivating and growing orchids developed during the 19^th century in Europe. Chrysanthemum is the one of the oldest flower grown in China as early as 500 BC. Most of garden flowers were introduced into Europe from their wild habitats between 16^th and 19^th century. Ornamental annuals constitute an amazing group of plants widely grown in the parks and gardens in different seasons. The enchanting beauty of colour, shades, form and fragrance have made them an obvious choice for every garden. No other plant can influence the general landscape in such an incredible manner by riot of colours.

Like in other crops, international research centres can contribute substantially towards solving the problems that limit ornamentals production because several research constraints are global in nature and need the research support by well staffed and adequately equipped research centres, which can make the work of national research programmes more efficient and accelerate the development of solutions. These international research centres can build a critical mass of scientists that is very important for effective research. It has almost established that successful research in individual crops has usually required the team efforts of specialists working in a range of disciplines like genetics, breeding, agronomy, physiology, pathology, entomology, economics, soils, statistics and chemistry, etc. These research centres are required to 1) Serve as catalyst for change 2) Collect, evaluate, maintain and utilize germplasm, 3) Generate and disseminate information 4) Provide training 5) Stimulate the formation of critical mass for research and 6) Assist national programmes achieving desired goals faster and more efficiently.

An understanding of intellectual property rights for plant breeders has become increasingly important over the last few decades. It is also a confusing topic to many in the industry. Confusion is understandable when we are presented with various types of protection, many acronyms, terms used interchangeably and incorrectly, regulations that vary internationally and a lack of understanding or consistent interpretations of laws that govern these rights.

Plants are unique from other marketed products due to their complex nomenclature, ease of propagation and the many levels of distribution and promotion involved in their marketing. The protection is required for a plant cultivar needs to be considered in relation to all of these factors in order to be correctly implemented and maintained. Breeding and commercialization of new ornamental plant varieties is an economically important activity both for the industry and the well being of our society. Breeding or developing a new variety requires a long time. In horticultural crops, it takes 3-10 years from initial crossing of parent cultivars to develop a commercial variety. It is important to encourage development of new variety by providing incentives such as Plant Breeders’ Rights (PBR) over exclusive production and marketing of seed of an improved variety. When the new cultivar is introduced and commercialized, plant breeders finally begin to get paid for their years of hard work in the form of royalties. Legal protection for new plant varieties provides the means by which companies, institutions, and independent plant breeders can receive a return on their investments of time and money as well as justify their involvement in research and new plant development. In addition, legal protection enables plant breeders to be recognized for their craft and skill and encourages plant breeding as a profession. Plant variety protection provides an incentive for continued breeding and to ensure the availability of new varieties that meet future demands and keep the industry thriving.

Hippeastrums, commonly known as Royal Dutch amaryllis/ Trumplet lily/ Belladonna lily, are bulbous ornamentals grown around the world for cut flowers, potted plants, window gardens and floral arrangements. The numerous hybrid phenotypes (miniature, orchid flowering, imbricated/ reginae, long trumpet/ belladonna type, etc.) are available in the world market. The history of its development and new trends of breeding are described as an aid for continued crop development. Tissue banks of cultivars are genetic evolutionary race history have been charted out for future improvement. Most cultivars are diploids and tetraploids cross incompatibility, sterility, reproductive barriers, self incompatibility often pose significant challenges to breeders. Little genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop, plant breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. The use of intra and interspecific hybridization, breeding for specific traits, polyploidy and mutation breeding are presented with a focus on creating novel transformations for this crop in the future.

Abstract: Anthurium, popularly known as aristocrat of the plant world, is admired for its unique ornamental value. The Netherlands remains the world’s largest grower and primary source of new colours and cultivars to the international market; while Hawaii remains the epicenter for published research on various aspects of anthurium genetics, propagation and improvement. Flower breeders have created numerous genotypes during the millennia of breeding this crop, which has enabled its establishment as pot plant and cut flower industry. Continued breeding and improvement of anthurium focus on floral fragrance, disease resistance, new flower shapes/ colours and improved floral longevity. Wonderful results achieved through interspecific hybridization, multiway crosses, polyploidy breeding and molecular genetic techniques have been discussed. Cultivars are almost exclusively asexually propagated. Anthuriums are cross pollinating perennial shrubs and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Long life cycle of plants, slow seed formation and maturation, slow suckering often pose significant challenges to breeders. Biotechnology has created a new horizon in anthurium breeding. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern anthurium breeders. Future crop idiotype is proposed to continue transformation of this monocot aroid crop during the next millennium.

Abstract: Impatiens are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding plants with numerous series (Shadeglow, Firefly, Peach Ice, Circus, Hawaii, Pixie, Show Topper, Elfin, Shady Lady, Fanciful, Fantasia, Fiesta, Futura, Jewel, Minarette, etc.) and F₁ hybrid cultivars available on world market. The history of balsam development as a crop is highlighted. Continued domestication by flower breeders produced a wide range of flower colours and flower patterns. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop; plant breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. Continuous breeding and improvement of balsam focus on flower colour/ size/ pattern, double flowers, plant growth habit/ branching and disease resistance. Important traits for both production and landscape use include flower colour/ size and bloom time, larger flowers, resistance to biotic and abiotic stress and other valuable traits. Results achieved through interspecific hybridization and polyploid breeding are discussed. The chapter concludes with future prospective for research and breeding in the genus.

Abstract: Bougainvilleas are morphologically diverse and admired for their ornamental value. The considerable diversity exists in bougainvillea species for leaf shape, degree of hairiness, bract colour, spine shape and blooming. These attributes have enabled the ornamental bougainvillea to be used as pot plants, hedge, pergola, standard and bonsai for display. Currently, there are many intra and interspecific hybrid cultivars and numerous mutations from numerous species in the market. Limited fertility, heterozygous nature, strong self incompatibility and seed sterility often pose significant challenge to breeders. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include; plant architecture, flower timing, colour diversity, multibracts and multicolour in single variety, environmental adaptation to stressful condition (cold tolerance, heat tolerance, drought tolerance, etc.).

Abstract: Zantedeschia, commonly known as calla lily, is one of the popular ornamental plant in the world. Zantedeschia are commonly associated with the New Zealand, even though they are native to South Africa. The vegetatively propagated crop is currently the most important rhizomatous geophyte in the world. Most cultivars are grown for cut flowers, variegated or spotted foliage for floral arrangements, flowering potted plants and landscaping. Continued breeding and improvement of Zantedeschia focused on disease resistance, improved floral longevity, novel spathe colour, better bloom quality, longer stems, more flowers/ rhizome and determinate growth habit. Intersectional/interspecific hybridization is hampered by post fertilization barriers, hybrid breakdown, albino hybrid embryo and F₁ sterility. Crossing barriers have been overcome with the use of in vitro embryo rescue. Haploidization and molecular techniques are being used to create homozygous plant and marker assisted selection, respectively.

Abstract: Carnation, is one of the commercial flower crops of the world. There are many forms of carnations, which are excellent for cut flowers, bedding pots, edging and rock gardens. The history of crop improvement and development is highlighted. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of novel phenotypes particularly standards (Sims), sprays, midis, annual, picotees, perpetual, chabaud, malmaison, multiflora, microcarnations, etc. Continuous breeding and improvement of carnation focus on floral fragrance, floral doubleness, dwarf stature, high growth rate, floral colour, reduced calyx splitting, floral longevity and disease resistance. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern carnation breeders. Numerous genes have been identified and being used to create transformants. Wonderful results achieved through interspecific hybridization, mutation and polyploid breeding are discussed. Poor pollen production, inbreeding depression, linkage between traits, limited gene pool, inadequate seed production, reproductive barriers often pose significant challenges to breeders. Crop ideotypes prescribe numerous traits for incorporation by flower breeders and geneticists, including straight stem, symmetrical flower shape/ form, early/ uniform flowering with high productivity, enhanced shelf life and resistance to physiological disorders and various diseases.

Abstract: The most popular ornamental monotypic species chinensis, is an important annual flower, used commercially as cut flower for interior decoration, bedding, potting and landscape purpose. Currently, there are many interspecific hybrid cultivars from this species on the market. The influence of breeding methods on the selection criterion and selection procedures is discussed. Information on variability and correlation is included. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include plant architecture, flowering (colour, size, timings), attractive flower heads, extended bloom time, horizontal placement of flowers, floral longevity, earliness, healthy foliage or other morphological traits. Future crop ideotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this crop for large scale cultivation.

Abstract: Chrysanthemum, commonly known as Queen of East, is perhaps oldest flowering plant, commercially grown in different parts of the world in a wide range of floricultural product including potted plants, cut flowers and garden plant. Vast range of shapes and sizes of flowers, brilliance of colour tones, long lasting bloom, ease of production and cultivation all the year round, range of plant habits from pot mums to tall shrub, hardy nature, and versatility of use make this a versatile floriculture crop, wide range of polyploidy level (diploid to decaploid) is found in different cultivars and are almost exclusively asexually propagated. The crop arises from multiple species, its allopolyploid nature has complicated progress in crop development due to inbreeding depression, genetic load and aneuploidy. Precise genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop; plant breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. Currently, numerous varieties have been developed through complex interspecific crosses among elemental species, open pollination, indiscriminate Intervarietal hybridization, spontaneous and induced mutation, selection, and management of chimera. Number of traits targeted for genetic intervention have been presented and discussed. Crop idiotypes for product classes prescribe numerous traits for incorpotion by flower breeders and geneticists including compact framework to withstand bloom for pot mums, long lasting bloom colour with enhanced shelf life for cut flower and sweet scented blooms with extended blooming season for garland use.

Abstract: Cosmos, popular as garden annual in many parts of the world, has its origin in Mexico. Cosmos is cross pollinating and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Self and cross incompatibility, self and intersterility, limited fertility, reproductive barriers and seed sterility often pose significant challenges to breeders. The breeding objectives include development of suitable indoor plants, less susceptible to powdery mildew and more tolerant to abiotic stress. The biotechnological skills can be attempted in breeding.

Keywords: Breeding, self incompatibility, sterility, hybrid seed production.

Abstract: Crossandra, traditional flower crop of India, produce beautiful flowers in remarkable range of colours of almost all the year. Flowers are ideal for garland making and hair adornments. Only few species are cultivated across the world. Improvement is focused on drought tolerant ornamental types for landscape/ container use, better keeping quality, heavy yield and vivid range of flower colours, long spikes, earliness and big flower size. Breeders have created mutant cultivars and F₁ hybrids having valuable traits. Lack of fragrance and meager seed set require biotechnological interventions.

Abtract: Dahlia, tuberous flowering plant, is valued for potted flowering and garden crop worldwide. The genus contains ~85 species native to Mexico, central America and Columbia. Numerous phenotypes (star/ anemone/ paeony/ decorative/ pompon/ cactus/ water lily flowered) and cultivars (giant/ large/ small/ miniature/ ball/ pompon/ mignon single) are available on world market. Cultivated dahlias are allotetraploids with great diversity in flower colour/ forms. Limited genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Precise elucidation of the genes involved in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway has enabled in the creation of new flower colours or modification of pigment production and expression discussed. Research succeeded in mutation breeding and interspecific hybridization and colourful dahlia varieties have been developed by individual enthusiasts, nurserymen and flower breeders. Complicated genetics, heterozygosity often pose significant challenges to breeders. Future crop ideotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this important crop during the next millennium.

Abstract: Gaillardia, commonly known as ‘Blanket flower’, is excellent for cut flower, mixed borders, edging and bedding plants. Huge quantum of variability exists in this crop in India. Currently, there are many interspecific hybrid cultivars and open pollinated varieties available in the market. Biparental inbreeding depression has complicated the progress of crop development. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include, plant architecture, flower morphology (colour, size, quality), attractive seed heads and drought stress.

Abstract: Pelargonium (syn. Geranium), has become mainstay in temperate landscapes because of its ease of production and cultivation, long lasting bloom, range of plant habits and diversity of uses (perfumery, cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industries). Confusion exists about nomenclature and taxonomic revision has attempted. Pelargoniums are popular seed and vegetatively propagated bedding and pot plants with numerous phenotypes (Fish type, Ivy leaved, Regal, Angels, Fancy leaves, Scented, Oak leaf) and cultivars (Double/ Bar/ Centre/ Ring/ Vein/ Picotee pattern/ Tulip/ Carnation/ Phlox/ Birds egg flowered) available on the world market. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of novel phenotypes particularly trailing growth habit, reduced plant size, compact form, manipulation of flowers (size, number, coloration, longevity, timing) and disease resistant cultivars. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits, molecular genetic techniques and biotechnological applications are valuable tools aiding modern pelargonium breeders. The need of new cultivars remains strong as divergence among pelargonium market types increases, production system becomes more specialized and new market develops.

Abstract: Gerberas are popular seed and vegetatively propagated flower crop with numerous phenotypes, series and cultivars available on the world market. Crop improvement is currently focused on bicoloured mini gerbera, semi-double and spider type forms, and hybrid cultivars with expanded colour range to boost productivity and profitability. Application of genetic engineering techniques and tools are aiding in modern gerbera breeding. The need for new cultivars remains strong as production system become more specialized and new markets develop. Breeding objectives with high priority include cut flower cultivars highly resistant to diseases, tolerant to low temperature, and floral longevity.

Abstract: Gladiolus, commonly known as ‘sword lily’ is native to South Africa. Most members of genus are heteroploids. It has pivotal place as cut flower with novel phenotypes (Grandifloras, Primulinus, Butterfly, Miniature, Face Ups, Orchideola), cultivars available on world market. Modern types are evolved through conventional breeding and very few through mutation breeding. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of fragrant, winter hardy and disease resistant cultivars. Breeders have reported close linkages in variety of traits. Cross pollinating nature coupled with high heterozygosity makes heredity transmission unpredictable. Future crop idiotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this important crop during the next millennium.

Abstract: Gomphrena, indigenous to India, is popular choice for borders, edging, making crafts and potpourris. Only few species are cultivated under tropical and sub-tropical regions. A little work has been done in its improvement. Research should be focused on varietal development for long photoperiod cultivation, tolerant to high temperature stress and medicinal values of the crop. Prospects of hybridization and mutation breeding need to be explored.

Abstract: Ornamental hibiscus (shoe flower) is native of Asia, probably China, but now conspicuous in all warm countries. Hibiscus is cross pollinating, evergreen shrub and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. High polyploid constitution of species predominant vegetative reproduction and rampant hybridization irrespective of chromosome number are features of this crop. The important traits for continuous crop improvement include plant with good growth habit, floriferous nature, desirable flower colour, size, shape and good keeping quality. A variety of flower forms, flower colours and growth forms exist. Very little genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Use of somatic hybridization, mutation breeding and marker assisted breeding are discussed. The continuous use of these techniques will ensure creation of new phenotypes for the market.

Abstract: Hollyhocks are seed propagated garden annuals with numerous hybrid phenotypes, series (single and bicoloured Halo series), Spotlight, Carter’s Double, Double Triumph, Giant Double Powder Puff, Halo Bush (tricoloured), Halo Mixed (eight colours) and cultivars are available in the world market. Unusual plant height, delayed flowering compared to other winter annuals handicap its popularity. While little genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop, breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. Gene pool of hollyhock exhibits great diversity. Breeding objectives with high priority include dwarf stature (2 feet height), compact growth, double and large flowered inflorescence, precocious flowering and resistance to leaf rust disease.

Abstract: Genus Jasminum contains 90 species to be true in existence and use, range from landscape to hair adornments, and perfumes. It is native to Indo-Malayan region. Morphological variants from different species have been developed in different regions in India. Unfruitfulness, cross incompatibility, pollen and seed sterility, delicate flower parts, peak and active night flowering, endosperm antagonism often pose significant challenge to breeders. Genetic information and trait heritability is almost unknown for this crop. Phenotypic traits requiring future improvement include recurrent flowering for fresh flower market, high concrete recovery, biotic and abiotic stress tolerance. Future breeding and genetic studies are needed for further transform this crop.

Abstract: Lilium is one of the six major genera of flower bulbs produced worldwide. Species are native to diverse habitat within Northern hemisphere. Liliums have a lengthy association with various world cultures. As a result, flower breeders have created numerous genotypes during the millennia of breeding this crop which has enabled its establishment in the top ten cuts, potted flowering and garden crops worldwide. The crop arises from multiple species. Research has focused on development of late flowering genotypes with forcing ability, improvement of flower form/ shape, pollenless cultivars, disease resistance and floral longevity. The limited genetic information and trait heritability have been established for this crop. Wide crosses are routinely used to create new genetic variability. Breeders have created complex hybrids such as LA, OT, OTO, FA, FAA, FO and OA hybrids through in vitro embryo rescue techniques. Molecular biology is being used to engineer Lilium against LSV and TBV. Crop ideotypes prescribe numerous traits for incorporation by flower breeders and geneticists including short forcing time, late flowering in Asiatic lilies, enhanced shelf life, genetically controlled height, rapid propagation and cultivars requiring no vernalization for flowering.

Abstract: Lotus, aquatic economic flower, associated with religion, art, and culture, is native to India. Most cultivars are diploid, seed and vegetatively propagated. Lotus is cross pollinated and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Low seed set often pose significant challenge to breeders. Breeding efficiency remains unknown. Flower breeders have created new colours with interspecific hybridization including yellow, pink, white and rose colour changing to creamy yellow. Traits of interest for crop transformation include environmental adaptation to stressful condition, low seed tannin, and flowering (colour, size, timing, etc.). Genetics of characters is unknown. Future breeding and genetic studies are needed for further transformation of this crop.

Abstract: Among the annual flowers, marigold is commercially important loose flower crop in India. Marigold types with odourless foliage with orange to light lemon colour are available in world market. Being cross pollinating and seed propagated, progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Improvements in marigold as cut flowers, larger flowers, more intense flower colour, an expanded flower colour range, more uniform plant habit, earlier flowering, more xanthophylls and extended bloom time are future breeding objectives. The use of intraand interspecific hybridization, heterosis, polyploidy and genetics of traits have been presented with a focus on creating novel transformations for this crop in future.

Abstract: Orchids, one of the largest commodities in international cut flowers and ornamental plant market, in which genera Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, and Vanda are most traded. Orchids occupy prime position among ornamental plants of the modern world. Both warm and cool temperature cultivars are grown in vitro germinated seeds or clones. Breeders have created polyploid cultivars (amphidiploids, triploids) which have greater flower number/raceme, large flowers and other valuable traits. Numerous genes have been identified in the genus with some sequenced genes being used to create genetic transformants. Genome breeding and wide crosses are routinely used to create new genetic variability. Future crop ideotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this crop during the next millennium.

Abstract: Viola or garden pansy, commonly known as sweet violet or king of annuals, are widely cultivated worldwide for landscape planting, garden design and container gardening. Today, numerous OP varieties, F₁ hybrids (Europa, Toto, Wasa), F₂ strains, series (Waterford, heat tolerant S series) and cultivars introduced by seed companies are available on the world market. Pansy breeding efforts have been focused on F₁ hybrid seed production, heat tolerance, flower colour, flower size and form, double flowers, earliness, disease resistance, floriferous nature and interspecific hybridization. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern pansy breeders. Research is needed to exploit heterosis for productivity and gene transformation to create new genetic variability.

Abstract: Periwinkles are popular seed propagated bedding plants with numerous hybrid varieties and series (First Kiss, Garden leader Splash, etc.) and cultivars available on world market and accepted by landscapers. A continued domestication by flower breeders produced a wide range of flower colours and flower patterns. The breeding objectives with high priority include alkaloid content, plant organs rich in pharmaceutical compounds, blooming potted plants with long display life, novel flower shapes/ form. Research focused on genetics of characters, genetic divergence, intervarietal/ interspecific hybridization and seed production has been discussed.

Abstract: Petunias, popular bedding plants, with variety of forms, sizes and shapes are employed for landscape planning, garden designs and container gardening. The numerous phenotypes viz., Grandifloras, Multifloras, Millifloras, Waves, Hedgifloras, etc. are complex hybrids. The outstanding marketable series of P. x hybrida have been developed for upright, spreading and semi-trailing to trailing habits. The leaf colour ranges from light to dark green and also variegated types. Flower colours with charming shades and patterns, picotte, star and pronounced venation of darker colours are available on world market. Petunias are strictly cross pollinated and progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern breeders. Numerous genes have been identified in the genus with some sequenced genes being used to create transformants with modified plant morphology, floral structure development, floral scent, and flower shelf life. Genes involved in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway has enabled precision in the creation of flower colours or modification of pigment production and expression. An exploitation of sterility and incompatibility for production of F₁ hybrid seeds is discusses in detail.

Abstract: Phlox, garden annual, is used as an ideal crop for cytogenetical study. The modern cultivars are grown for ground cover in beds, borders, rock gardens or as edging in landscaping. Phlox taxa serve as a model for speciation through hybridization and contribute to domestication of wild species through interspecific hybridization which revitalized the crop. Limited fertility, reproductive barriers, germination challenges, low seed set often pose significant challenges to breeders. The increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetic techniques are valuable tools aiding modern phlox breeders. Breeding objectives with high priority include dwarf stature, novel forms, winter hardiness and disease resistance.

Abstract: Calendulas, popularly known as pot marigold, are admired for their ornamental value. The leaves, seeds and flowers are source of oil, pigments, dye, flavonoids, and ingredient in cosmetics, human, and animal medicines and dietary composition. Currently, there are intraspecific hybrids in the market. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include plant architecture, flowering, flower colour and size, large and bold seed with high oil, pest and virus resistance.

Keywords: Calendula, intraspecific hybridization, mutation, molecular marker.

Abstract: Rose is a popular cut flower and flowering garden plant. Fragrance, wide colour range, plant forms and wide adaptability make it a versatile floriculture crop. The diagnostic traits of the different classes are described with reference to their potential commercial value. Increasing genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop and molecular genetic techniques are valuable tools aiding modern rose breeders, cultivars are almost exclusively asexually propagated. A gametophytic self incompatibility is found within this species. Numerous cultivars developed through hybridization and mutation techniques are discussed. Rose breeding efforts have been focused on miniature forms, floral fragrance, recurrent blooming, diverse colours, thornlessness, potential rootstocks, mutilple disease, pest resistance and winter hardiness. Transgenic research is highlighted. The journey of rose is endless and rose breeding may continue forever.

Keywords: Rose, intervarietal hybridization, mutation, inheritance, self incompatibility, rootstock, seed production, genetic transformation.

Abstract: Ornamental salvia, native to Brazil is cultivated as bedding plant in the world. Many species have horticultural, commercial and medicinal values. Continued breeding and improvement of salvia is focused on disease resistance, new flower colours, seed oil content and abiotic stress tolerance. Interspecific hybridization is hampered by genomic differences, heterostyly, self incompatibility and low seed set. Breeders have created polyploid cultivars and mutants which have high ornamental value. Continued use of these and other modern techniques will ensure creation of new phenotypes for the market.

Keywords: Salvia, polyploidization, male sterility, inheritance, seed production.

Abstract: Snapdragon, a decorative ornamental, is used as model plant for genetic and biochemical study. These are popular flowering potted plants, bedding plants and cut flowers around the world due to their flowering floriferousness, wide range in flower colour, size, and shape with numerous phenotypes (Tall Giant/ Grandiflora, Super Giant, Dwarf, Semi-dwarf, Miniature, etc.) series (Butterfly, Rocket Hybrid, Sweet Heart, Pixie, etc.) and cultivars available in market. Hybrid seed production transformed the crop; continued domestication by flower breeders produced a wide range of flower colours and flower patterns. The increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern snapdragon breeders. Snapdragons are of the few floriculture crops which have genetic evolutionary race history, precise elucidation of taxonomic relationships between taxa, genomic maps, and advanced molecular genetics. In particular elucidation of the genes involved in control of floral development and in anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway has enabled precision in the creation of new flower colours or modification of floral symmetry and expression.

Keywords: Antirrhinum, taxonomy, flower shape, structural genes, molecular biology.

Abstract: Limoniums, popularly called as statice/ Sea lavender are morphologically diverse and admired for their ornamental value. Perennial annual statice is widely cultivated worldwide for both, garden decoration and indoor decoration. This chapter includes a short overview of the taxonomic and reproductive behaviour of the genus. Majority of the species are triploids and reproduce apomictically. Limoniums exhibit incompatibility linked with pollen and stigma dimorphism, heterostyly and biparental inbreeding and species cross compatibility leading to genetic variability. Many F₁ hybrids are available for commercialization as potted lines. Use of tissue culture, molecular markers, embryo rescue, cryopreservation, super compact transgenic clones has been discussed. No genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include: plant architecture, panicle length, number of branches per panicle, novel colours of both calyx and corolla, high number of flowers per stem, environmental adaptation to stressful conditions, etc.

Keywords: F₁ cultivars, interspecific hybridization, polyploidization, self incompatibility, potted plants.

Abstract: Tuberose, native of Mexico, occupies prominent position due to long spikes of fragrant flowers, potential in perfume industry and nearly year round growth in tropical and sub-tropical climate. Flowers are used for artistic garlands, floral ornamentals, bouquets and cut flowers for table decoration. Flowers remain fresh pretty long time and stand long distance transportation. Lack of genetic diversity in flower type, size, colour, self incompatibility, sterility, low seed set and limited information on genetics of characters pose significant challenges to breeders. Breeding objectives with high priority include dwarf plant type, novel colours, attractive forms for pot culture/ bedding purpose intense fragrance and high essential oil content. Only two white flowered cvs. Single and Double types are cultivated for commercial production. Salient breeding achievements through planned hybridization and mutation breeding are discussed.

Keywords: Polianthes, cultivars, interspecific/ intervarietal hybridization, transgressive segregants, gamma rays.

Abstract: Tulip (Tulipa) is ornamental bulbous plant cultivated for cut flower, potted plant, garden plant and for landscaping. Species from different sections display complementary agronomic characteristics. The main goals of breeding are introgression of resistance against diseases, short forcing period, flower longevity, new flower colours and flower shapes. Long juvenile phase, slow rate of propagation, long breeding phase, slow rate of propagation, long breeding cycle, knowledge of mode of inheritance, reproductive and germination barriers pose significant challenges to breeders. The use of molecular cytogenetic tools, methods to overcome crossing barriers, polyploidization, biotechnological tools and marker assisted breeding are discussed.

Keywords: Geophyte, monocot, genomic analysis, interspecific hybridization, intergenomic recombination, gene transfer, forcing, tulipa.

Abstract: Verbena, popular annual is suitable for landscapes, hanging baskets and ground cover as bedding type. Due to seed propagation and out crossing, progeny can segregate widely for traits due to heterozygosity. Important traits for landscape use include flower colour and extended bloom time, large and highly showy flowers, plant architecture (matting habit), environmental adaptation to stressful condition (heat tolerance) and disease resistance. Genetic information and trait heritability is almost unknown for this crop. The use of interspecific hybridization, polyploid, breeding for disease resistance and mutation breeding are presented. Tissue banks and genetic evolutionary race history have been maintained. Transgenic plants have been developed.

Keywords: Phylogeny, breeding, F₁ hybrids, transgenic.

Abstract: Water lily, bulbous ornamental, constitute element of aquatic gardens. A variety of flower colour, flower forms, modes of reproduction and leaf sizes exist in Nymphaea. This species is a complex hybrid group. A wide range of polyploidy (including aneuploidy, trisomy, polysomaty), polymorphism and heterozygosity exists within the cultivars of water lily. Genetic information and trait heritability is almost unknown for this crop. Breeders have created synthetic water lily hybrids. Low fecundity, limited fertility, reproductive barriers, low seed set, relatively low elemental (founding) species among elite germplasm often pose significant challenges to flower breeders. Breeding objectives with high priority include tolerance to drought, year round flowering and lower seed tannins. Future breeding and genetic studies are needed to further transform this crop.

Keywords: Nymphaea, correlation, sterility, interspecific hybridization polyploidy.

Abstract: Zinnia, multipurpose ornamental annual is noted for its garden performance. The uses of zinnias range from dwarf cultivars used for containers, borders or edging, bedding to tall cultivars used for cut flowers. Breeders and seed companies successfully introduced hybrid cultivars in the mid 20^th century. Some modes of inheritance of floral doubleness, floral colour, male sterility, self incompatibility, leaf morphology, disease resistance have been discussed/ clarified; research succeed in interspecific hybridization, polyploidy, mutation breeding and seed production are presented. Somaclonal variation for generating mutants has created new horizons in zinnia breeding. Important traits for both production and landscape use include flower colour and bloom time, plant habit and form, seed germination, disease and virus susceptibility.

Keywords: Breeding, cytology, inheritance, polyploidy, F₁ hybrids, seed production.

The status of gardening during ancient time has been presented in Ramayana, written by Valmiki. Ayodhya city was described as having wide streets, large houses, richly decorated temples and gardens. These gardens were planted with fruit trees and flowering plants and had lakes full of lotus (Nelumbo sp.) and different kinds of birds. During exile, Lord Rama and Sita are believed to have observed a number of trees and were fascinated by beautiful flowers; one of them was Sita Ashok (Saraca asoca).

Mahabharata, written by Saint Vyasa also contains description about gardens. During the Mahabharata era, pleasure gardens were planted with flowering plants. The famous tree of this era was Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba), which is associated with Lord Krishna.

The systematic gardening in India is as old as civilization of Indus of Harappa, which existed between 2400 B.C. and 1750 B.C. At that time, people were living in well-planned roads cut across one another almost at right angles. There are many evidences which prove that trees and ornamental plants were associated with the Harappan civilization. India has a long history of close association of people with flowering plants. It begins with the arrival of Aryans to India in 1600 B.C. They were literate people and brought with them the four Vedas viz., Rig veda, Atharva veda, Yazur veda and Sam veda and the Puranas. They appreciated the beauty of flowering plants, lakes, mountains, forests, etc. and named their children after flowers like Kamal, Champa, Bela, Chameli, Rukmani, etc. The followers of Hindu religion worship their Gods and Goddesses with flowers early in the morning.

The life of Lord Buddha was associated with a number of trees from birth to his Nirvana. He was born in 563 B.C. under the tree of Ashoka (Saraca asoca) at Lumbini. Further, Buddha attained his enlightenment under a Pipal (Ficus religiosa) tree, spread his new teachings under shady banyan and mango trees and breathed his last in a Sal (Shorea robusta) grove.

When Lord Buddha visited Vaishali, Amrapali presented a park known as Amravana which was dominated by flowering trees. Buddhists were planting trees and flowering plants on a large scale for making surrounding peaceful and place ideal for meditation.

The history of gardening in India is older than civilizations of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. During the pre-Aryan period (around 2500 B.C.), Indians were cultivating flowers and plants of religious significance. Later importance of gardening was not properly understood in India. But presently, importance of landscaping and gardening is realised by planners and landscaping has now become an integral part of any new establishment or property. Due to urbanization and industrialization, pollution has increased considerably and landscaping is one of the best options to reduce the problem. Landscaping is an art of beautifying a piece of land or garden or a landscape with planting materials and non-living materials in order to create a picturesque effect or to imitate nature in that particular land for human use. The importance of landscape gardening can be divided into three categories.