eChapters

52.1. Aim

To conduct practical on freezing of fruits.

52.2. Theory

Freezing is a method of preservation in which the food temperature is reduced below freezing point and a proportion of water changes in to ice-crystals. Immobilization of water to ice and the resulting concentration of dissolved solutes in unfrozen water cause lowering of water activity in the food. Thus, reduction in water activity and use of low temperature coupled with some pre-treatments is the basis for food preservation by freezing. The method for freezing of fruits depends upon the intended use. The process variables for freezing of different fruits and flow chart are shown in Table 52.1 and Fig 52.1. Generally fruits after preliminary treatments are packed in sugar syrup and frozen in freezer. The fruits are frozen to an internal temperature of -18oC or lower and kept at 18oC or lower throughout transport and storage.

53.1. Aim

To conduct practical on freezing of vegetables

53.2. Theory

Freezing is often considered the simplest and most natural way of preservation for vegetables. Frozen vegetables and potatoes form a significant proportion of the market in terms of frozen food consumption. The quality of frozen vegetables depends on the quality of fresh products, since freezing does not improve product quality. Pre-process handling, from the time vegetables are picked until ready to eat, is the important factor affecting quality of finished product. The process variables for freezing of different vegetables and flow chart are shown in Table 54.1 and Fig 54.1. Generally fruits after preliminary treatments are packed in sugar syrup and frozen in freezer.

Adverse climatic conditions like temperature, humidity, frost etc. affect vegetative growth, flowering, fruiting as well as quality of horticultural crops. Tropical crops are usually more sensitive to low temperature and frost injuries whereas temperate crops are vulnerable to high temperature effects. High temperature beyond tolerable limits may cause sunscald, tip dieback, bud death and heartwood damage. On the other hand, when temperature drops below the freezing point; water molecules ice formation in the intercellular spaces takes place showing freezing injuries on various plant parts. The symptoms like dehydration and necrosis are visible on plant due to increased concentration of sugars within the cell causing reduction in the water content. The extent of damage will depend upon the prevailing low temperature and its duration. Exposure of the plant near freezing temperature for prolonged time causes death of the plant due to formation of ice crystals in intercellular spaces.

Major industries constituting the food processing industry are grains, sugar, edible oils, beverages and dairy products. The key sub-segments of the food processing industry in India are dairy, fruits and vegetables, poultry and meat processing, fisheries, food retail etc. Agro processing is the sunrise sector of the Indian economy in view of its large potential for growth and likely socio economic impact specifically on employment and income generation. India has the advantage of being one of the fastest growing economies in the world and it is the largest producer of several agricultural commodities. The food processing sector ranks first in terms of employment and number of factories in operation and third in terms of output.

In India, out of the total production of fruits and vegetables, nearly 76 per cent is consumed in fresh form, while wastage due to improper post harvest accounts for 20 to 35 per cent. Only around 2 percent of vegetables and 4 percent of fruit production are being processed. 

Fruit drop is a natural phenomenon, which occurs in most of the fruit crops. Fruit trees usually bear a large number of flowers and only a very small percentage leads to harvesting of fruits. Fruit drop occurs at various stages of maturity of fruit development. It is an adjustment of tree to its resources. Such drop is natural and beneficial to the trees and it will prevent exhaustion of the resources and breaking of branches by overbearing. The fruit drop usually takes place in definite waves or at a definite stage and those are presetting, post setting, jar drop and pre harvest drop.

The first drop i.e. presetting occurs immediately after flower opening. Usually male flowers as well as female/ hermaphrodite flowers with aborted pistil drop off at this stage.

Second drop i.e. post setting occurs a fortnight later than the first drop. This drop includes unfertilized flowers as well as some fertilized flowers drop as a result of adjustment in the trees between nutritional factors arid fruit set.

1. Introduction

India has diverse agro-climatic conditions which, widely promote the cultivation of different types of fruit crop. A wide variety of fruit crops are grown across the country such as banana, mango, citrus, papaya, guava, grapes, pomegranate, apple etc. Globally, we rank second in fruit production after China. The total area under fruit crops is 66.64 lakh ha with a production of 99.06 million Mt (Anon., 2018). However, the average productivity (13.03 t/ha) in fruit crops is quite low than other countries. Further, the per capita fruits availability in our country is 207.9 g/ day which is below than the recommended quantity of 230 g/capita/day (Anon., 2018). 

9.1. Introduction

Fruit juice and beverages generally comprise of naturally extracted juices, drinks, ready to serve (RTS) beverages, nectars, squashes, cordials and appetizers etc. These products are highly refreshing, thirst quenching, appetizing and nutritionally superior to many synthetic and aerated drinks. Fruit juice is the natural liquid expressed by pressure or other mechanical means from the edible portion of the fruit. Fruit juices are generally extracted from fruits in a number of ways, depending on their structure and composition.

The composition of juice is unaltered during preparation and preservation while for fruit beverages like drinks, squashes, cordial etc the fruit juice or pulp, sugar, acid, colour, flavour etc are mixed in appropriate proportions to a desirable taste. Apple juice, orange juice, mango squash, guava drink, pineapple juice and squash, mixed fruit drink, mango nectar etc are the commercial products available in the market.

Trees alone on the earth give happiness both here and hereafter. Since they “save” from abject poverty they are named “taravah” (the saviors). Therefore, the trees should be carefully nurtured as through their shade, flowers and fruits they help immensely in the pursuit of dharma, artha, and kama (Vrikshayurveda).

India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world. Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi recommends intake of 125g leaf vegetables, 100g roots and 75g other vegetables/ day / adult for a balanced diet. Green leaf vegetables occupy an important place among the food crops as these provide adequate amounts of many vitamins and minerals for humans. Besides this, leaf vegetables are easy to grow and readily fit in any cropping system owing to its short duration. They are rich sources of carotene, ascorbic acid, riboflavin, folic acid and minerals like calcium, iron and phosphorus (Ramdasmurthy and Mohanram, 1984).
 
In nature, there are many greens of promising nutritive value, which can nourish the ever increasing human population. In spite of their nutritional importance, in India, leaf vegetable production is limited to kitchen gardens and market gardens due to various reasons. Although they can be raised comparatively at lower management costs even on poor marginal lands, they have remained underutilized due to lack of awareness and popularization of technologies for utilization.

Ornamentals are beautiful plants used in home and urban landscaping to enhance quality of our lives. Ornamental crops are widely cultivated worldwide and appreciated for their characteristics and unique appreciable qualities such as attractive color, impressive shape and size of flower and for fragrance of flowers and foliage. Earlier ornamental plants were largely associated with our social life. Of late trends has changed towards commercialization and now they are used for decoration, personal adornment and value added products viz. dry flowers, extraction of essential oils, perfumes and dyes and in landscaping. Further, it helps in creating more job opportunities for youth and women.

The growing demands for quality flowers, introduction of new ornamental plants and diversification needs more attention in ornamental floriculture industry. Novelty is the key to success in ornamental horticulture. Introduction of exotic ornamentals and the domestication and release of new genotypes of wild ornamentals is always welcome in this connection. Some exotic ornamentals hitherto not widely grown in Indian gardens as well as a few native ornamentals with capability to bring in a color revolution and having the potential for exploitation are discussed below.

Introduction

Food crops like fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, herbs and sprouts, mushrooms and algae, flowers and seaweeds are all part of horticulture, which is also the study and practice of producing non-food crops like grass and decorative trees and plants. Growing plants is known as horticulture in Latin. For several reasons, horticulture is very significant: 

1. Crop Diversity and Nutrient Density: Horticulture is an essential part of the food production system since it produces so many different kinds of fruits, vegetables, and nuts.

2. A large number of people throughout the globe rely on this industry for their livelihood, since it is a significant part of agriculture. The commercial value of horticultural goods is typically rather significant.

Abstract: Gaillardia, commonly known as ‘Blanket flower’, is excellent for cut flower, mixed borders, edging and bedding plants. Huge quantum of variability exists in this crop in India. Currently, there are many interspecific hybrid cultivars and open pollinated varieties available in the market. Biparental inbreeding depression has complicated the progress of crop development. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include, plant architecture, flower morphology (colour, size, quality), attractive seed heads and drought stress.

Gaillardia is a hardy flowering crop appreciated for its colourful blooms and suitability for loose flower production, landscaping and ornamental purposes. The chapter introduces important Gaillardia species and hybrids and discusses their origin, genetics, botanical characteristics and commercially useful varieties. Production aspects include suitable temperature, sunlight, soil, propagation, seed sowing, nursery raising, transplanting, nutrient management and irrigation. Cultural practices such as weeding and regular removal of spent flowers are included to maintain continuous flowering. The chapter further describes important pests and diseases, including aphids, thrips, powdery mildew, smut and aster yellows. Harvesting during the early morning, cold-chain requirements and yield are also explained

Garden should serve the feelings of comfort and pleasure along with soothing effect on mind and soul of the owner and the visitors. This should be the basic aim of the landscape designer along the budget. Landscape artist should never imitate another garden which has secured popularity but should develop one’s own design. Every plot or site may not be even and ideal for designing a garden. The principles of landscape design work together to create the overall look of the garden. Natural undulations of a barren landform should be utilized with its advantages and also to break the monotony of leveled plain. The principles of garden designing interact with the elements of color, texture, line, form and scale to develop a unified landscape design that blends the beauty of nature with the splendor of modern architecture.

7.1 Introduction

Garden designing is an important and crucial step as whole aesthetic view of the garden depends upon it. A beautifully designed garden can attract plenty of viewers as well as fauna while a poorly designed garden can destroy the view of the garden as a whole. So, while designing a garden all the basic principles and elements of gardening should be kept in mind.

7.2 Steps in Preparation of Garden Design

Site identification

Generally, the site for garden development is provided by the client itself. So, in this case we should go for site analysis step directly. Site identification is always a choice of client/human. If landscape architect has liberty to identify a land for garden establishment, he should identify the site as per choice of the client, usage and special considerations of the client.

Garden Features

In order to break the monotony and to enhance the beauty, any garden should contain components of varying nature. Some features are not only essential but also an important part of the visual design. Besides this, any garden feature allows to discover and save the creative ideas on a wide sheet of natural green carpet. Following are important features.

1. Arbour

It is a recessed or somewhat enclosed area shaded by trees or shrubs that serves as a resting place in a wooded area. In a more formal garden, an arbour is a small structure with vines trained over lattice work on a frame, providing a shady place. A true arbour includes a bench sheltered underneath for seating, which distinguishes it from a trellis. There are different types of arbours such as archway, wood, plastic, metal, etc. Arbour can be developed at several locations of the garden such as entrances at the main gate, pergola area, patios area, pathway entrance, pool area, etc.

Landscape models focus on both the integrated master landscape planning of a home gardening and specific garden design. The people should be educated to realize the importance of gardening, by providing good parks and gardens in cities for a large population to relax and enjoy the beauty of nature. The plants used in the landscape designing of gardens are directly or indirectly involved in increasing the aesthetic value of the city, changing microclimate, social behaviour of the people, checking pollution etc. The importance of landscape gardening in human welfare cannot be overlooked. Even in an under-developed country as India, people do not live by bread alone. They also need some finer things of life. The models described in this chapter are very basic features of any garden.

Garden Walls

A garden lover will never like to block the view of his garden by putting a wall along periphery of the garden. A garden as it is enjoyed from inside should also be visible from outside but sometimes, it is necessary from safety and beauty point of view to obscure the ugly sight of an open drain. A compromise is to have a low brick wall of say 60-90 cm height and to put over it some grills, so that the view is not totally obstructed from outside. Alternatively, walls from 1.80 to 5.0 m may also be erected based upon the size of the garden.

Garden Walls : A garden lover will never like to block the view of his garden by putting a wall along its periphery. A garden as it is enjoyed from inside should also be visible from outside.

• Low brick or concrete or stone wall of say 60-90 cm height and to put over it some grills.
• Alternatively walls from 1.8-5.0 m may also be erected depending upon the size of garden.
• One may grow creepers such as Ficus repens over the wall.

Flower Beds: The most essential criterion of a flower beds is display the flowers in the best way possible. It may be born in mind that flowers look best when massed in a bed. The flower beds are of special importance under condition of the plains of India since they can be kept planted throughout the year unlike those in England or other parts of Europe where nothing can be grown in the open between November-March. Annuals and herbaceous, perennial flowers, flowering plants are grown in flower beds to provide massing effect of different colours borders is continuous beds of more length than width containing plant of one kind only.

This is a very special type of garden for the visually impaired and disabled persons. The pleasure of seeing beauty of the nature like meadows, sky, sea, mountain and plants has always fascinated mankind who has vision. Unfortunately, people who are not able to see are entirely deprived of the pleasure associated with seeing such visual objects. Their world is entirely different from the others. However, they have got better sense of touch, smell and hearing ability to compensate loss of vision.

Disabled persons are also not in a position to enjoy fully the beauty of nature and plants due to restricted mobility. In addition, most of the ornamental gardens are not fully accessable by disabled persons particularly on wheel chairs.

The ‘Touch-‘N‘-Smell Garden’ is very rare and unique kind of garden meant for the visually impaired and disabled persons enabling them to learn about the diversity of plant species by touch and smell. In India, there are three such gardens. One in the Botanic Garden, CSIR- National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow and the others are at M.S. Swaminathan Foundation, Chennai and Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi. Similar such sensory gardens of the world are in Berlin (Germany), Kyoto (Japan), New York (U.S.A.), Nanjing (China) and Warsaw (Poland).

A number of tools, implements and machineries are used in cultivation of horticultural crops to make every operation easy and efficient. There are a number of operations involved in cultivation of horticultural crops, like making of nursery, propagation of plant material, field ploughing, breaking of clods, levelling, making bunds, sowing and planting, plant protection, training, pruning, harvesting, lawn mowing etc. All these operations are physically taxing and cannot be carried out efficiently without proper tools, implements and machineries. Following are some important tools -

1. Bill hook: To cut and remove big sized unwanted branches of trees.

2. Buckets and plastic pots: used in the orchard for spraying, transport water, carry harvested produce etc.

3. Budding and grafting knife: The budding and grafting operations in propagation of many horticultural plants are carried out using budding and grafting knife.

4. Country plough: Used in field preparation for ploughing the soil, incorporation of organic manures into the soil at the time of last ploughing, summer ploughing in conserving of soil moisture.

5. Crow bar: Used to loosen the soil, digging and deepening the pits and channels.

6. Dibbler: Used to make holes and sow the seeds in the nursery as well as in the main field.

7. Digging fork: It is of a great use in harvesting the tuber crops without damaging the produce.