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After independence, the Government of India realized the need of diversification in agriculture during the mid-eighties with an objective to make it more profitable through efficient land use. Due to diverse agro-climatic conditions, rich diversity in genetic resources of horticultural crops, sincere efforts through education and research, implementation of standardized technology by horticulturist in the field has achieved not only the production, productivity and export of horticultural produce but also the food and nutritional security. Such horticulture development in India is proudly said as “Golden Revolution”. Horticulture is also said to be a sunrise industry as it has potential to raise farm income, provide livelihood security and earn foreign exchange through export.

The horticulture industry is now expanding in many commercial sectors such as cultivation, production, post-harvest handling, processing, marketing, etc. Horticulture crops are grown on an area of 10% of India’s gross cropped area, as compared to over 50% of the area under food grains production. 

Early reports are always path finders for future research. Earlier studies at CSIR-NBRI on characterization of bougainvillea is so important that it should be highlighted for researchers. Horto-taxonomical description of the leading Bougainvillea species/cultivars have been prepared according to their affinities to the species and hybrid seedlings (Sharma 1986a,b, 1996, Srinivas 1995, Khoshoo 1971a,b, Zadoo et al., 1975a, Jayanthi 1999). 
Abraham Kavoor : Bougainvillea x buttiana, tall, vigorous growth, young branches greenish-coppery, leaf blade ovate, green; thorn long, straight; bracts ovate, yellow-orange.
Abhimanyu : B. peruviana, bud sport of ‘Arjuna’, medium, drooping; branch greenish-coppery; leaves variegated, leaf elliptic, green; thorn long, straight, bracts elliptic, red-purple.
Aida : B. spectabilis, hybrid seedling of B. spectabilis (Lancaster 1940, Calcutta), tall, growth vigorous, young stem greenish coppery, tomentose, leaf blade ovate, base acute, apex acute to acuminate, coppery, old dark green, puberulent, thorn straight, bract young carmine changing to rose madder, elliptic, apex obtuse, profuse blooming, ideal as shrub, and pot culture.

While much has been written about the taxonomy of wild plants, the cultivated plants have always been looked at with suspicion by taxonomists. There might have feeling that cultivated plants are not natural and therefore fall outside the orbit of a taxonomist. It may be that taxonomy of cultivated plants is more difficult due to their extensive distribution needing wide sampling, rampant hybridization and high mutation rate, leading to diversity in their variation patterns. One of the principal advantages of the study of cultivated plants is that more often we know their genetic-evolutionary race history, together with its reasons and diversity. There is, therefore, a need to take up, what may be called as Hortorium Taxonomy, i.e. taxonomy of the cultivated plants so as to put the subject on a proper footing as a prelude to writing a ‘Flora of the Cultivated Plants of India’. The related wild species together with the elemental, basal or parental species of a cultivated species should be classified according to the rule of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated plants based on the cultivar concept. A cultivar is not to be confused with a botanical variety.

House Plants refer a group of ornamental plants, both foliage and fowering, used for decoration of house interiors besides verandahs, corridors, porch, stairs, window sills etc. These are of various categories namely trees (juvenile), shrubs, herbs, bulbous, rhizomatus and other shade loving plants. House plants are generally grown in pots and displayed for making interiors delightful and cosy. In addition, such arrangements enhance the architectural beauty of the buildings. These are easily shifted from one place to another as per display plan. Moreover, option of changing the whole lot with a new set provides opportunity to create a new look of the site.

Foliage type house plants with their exquisite leaves, colour, variegation and uniqueness add grandeur to the interiors. On the otherhand, flowering ones having a spectrum of flower colour, are added attraction for beautifying relatively lighted areas of house. House plants are also grown as bedded plants in the gardens where ground space is available.

Successful growing of house plants depends on right selection of species considering climatic conditions, proper placement and maintenance. The main purpose is to make interiors decorative and lively. In addition to the aesthetic effect, house plants make the interiors more humid and cool. Besides, they absorb pollutants and supply oxygen. In cities, space for outdoor gardening attached to the house has almost vanished due to non-availability of land and high cost. As a result, popularity of growing house plants has increased manifold. Display of house plants is also a regular practice in other places like offices, institutes, banks, hospitals, factories, hotels etc. as these create an ambient working atmosphere besides beautification.

House plants play an integral role in providing decorative value and aesthetic sense to the place. They are important component of interiorscaping and provides softscape. House plants are also considered as natural air filters as they provide freshness and many house plants are reported to absorb many house pollutants. The demand of house plants are generating many employment opportunities like plant rental services, interiorscaping etc. The house plants are preferred in homes, offices, hospitals, multiplexes etc.

Placement

These attractive house plants rightly deserve their place as interior decorations. “Shade loving” is an adjective often used to describe house plants, but this is a misnomer, Plants may be shade tolerant but they do not actually seek poor light. Diffused light through the glasses or windows’ can be effective you can supplement the suns’ rays with artificial light in the form of a “warm white” fluorescent tube. Then may be shifting them after frequent intervals in the open for a short duration in morning hours to supplement the sunlight during winter months and leaving them out overnight and bringing them after exposing them to early morning sunlight during hot months exposure for a desired time frame in the monsoon are some of the effective methods to make your house plants feel happier.

14.1 Introduction

The mating or crossing of genetically dissimilar individuals is called hybridization. Hybridization results in recombination that in turn widens the spectrum of variation among individuals. So, the reason for genetic diversity in progenies of crosses is the formation of new combinations of genes. This newly created variability is then channelized into development of better cultivars.

The importance of pure line selection as a method of breeding started decreasing when plant breeders felt that the genetic variability existing in the land races of self-pollinated crops had been almost completely exploited and there was little chance for further improvement in these crops by using pure line breeding. Therefore, no option was left for plant breeders except to cross diverse individuals and combine together desirable characters in a single genotype from two or more parents. The planned hybridization which could avoid self-pollination and chance cross-pollination, soon became the main feature of almost all plant breeding programmes.

The genus Hydrangea is the best-known member of family Hydrangeaceae tribe Hydrangeae from the Asterid order Cornales. With more than two centuries of horticultural trade, Hydrangea cultivars are among the most popular ornamental shrubs worldwide (McClintock, 1957 and Kardos et al., 2009). Hydrangea (Hortensia) is a very popular ornamental plant for gardens. Hydrangeas occur most often on partly shaded but open slopes, rock edges, cliffs, roadside banks, edges of woods, or in moist open woods. Usually, restricted to the more moist, protected slopes. Recently it is commercialized for the production of cut flowers (Sacco et al., 2012). In India is widely grown in hilly areas.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The species of genus Hydrangea L. grow naturally in temperate areas of Eastern Asia, including some Pacific islands adjacent to Eastern Asia (Philippines, Taiwan, etc.), in temperate Northeastern America, in subtropical Middle and South America (McClintock, 1957). Throughout the eastern United States, ranging from the middle Atlantic States southward through the Southern Appalachians, and westward into the Ozarks and lower Midwest, numerous populations of shrubs with large, ovate, opposite leaves and compound cymes of small white flowers are en-countered. These are the wild hydrangeas.

SPECIES

Hydrangea is a genus of about 75 species of flowering plants native to southern and eastern Asia and North and South America. Most are shrubs 1-3 tall, but some are small trees and others lianas (Sacco et al., 2012). Species differ qualitatively in flavonoid constituents.

The genus Hydrangea is the best-known member of family Hydrangeaceae tribe Hydrangeae from the Asterid order Cornales. With more than two centuries of horticultural trade, Hydrangea cultivars are among the most popular ornamental shrubs worldwide (McClintock, 1957 and Kardos et al., 2009). Hydrangea (Hortensia) is a very popular ornamental plant for gardens. Hydrangeas occur most often on partly shaded but open slopes, rock edges, cliffs, roadside banks, edges of woods, or in moist open woods. Usually, restricted to the more moist, protected slopes. Recently it is commercialized for the production of cut flowers (Sacco et al., 2012). In India is widely grown in hilly areas.

Introduction

Instead of using soil, the unique technique of hydroponics grows plants in a nutrient-rich water solution. Using a tightly controlled environment, gardeners may optimise factors including sunlight, pH balance, and nutrient levels to maximise plant development in this agricultural approach. Hydroponics allows plants to grow more quickly and produce more by delivering nutrients straight to their roots. Water efficiency, less soil-borne disease risk, and the capacity to grow crops in non-arable or urban areas are just a few of the benefits of this technology. More and more people are turning to hydroponics as a means to grow their own food in a more regulated and efficient manner, all while reducing their impact on the environment.

Garden Rakes

1.For use with moving debris.

2.Aids in the cleaning process.

3.Proper use is with two hands.

5.1 Impact of climate change on agriculture

Climate change has both positive and negatively impact on agriculture, food security and land degradation. Climate change could exacerbate the land degradation processes by increases in rainfall intensity, drought frequency and severity, dry spells, f looding, heat stress, sea-level rise and permafrost thaw. The 1/4^th of ice-free land area in the world is prone to human-induced anthropogenic degradation (Certini and Scalenghe, 2011; Hooke et al., 2012). Soil erosion rate is 20-100 times faster than that of soil formation in agricultural field. The erosion rate is least is zero-tillage (non-disturbed field) and maximum at conventional intensive tillage practices. Climate change further exacerbates the land degradation. The permafrost areas, dry-lands, low-lying coastal regions, river deltas are more vulnerable. The occurrence of drought in dry-land was increased by around 1% per year during 1961-2013 periods. On an average 380-620 million people globally experienced desertification who lived in dry-land areas (1980s and 2000s) in South and East Asia, North Africa, Middle East, Sahara region, and Arabian peninsula. Moreover, people who are already living in degraded/ desertified regions are more negatively affected by climate change.

Specifically, the land surface air temperature has increased about twice as much as the global average temperature since the pre-industrial era. The land-surface air temperature has increased relatively higher than the world’s average surface (land and ocean) temperature since the pre-industrial era (1850-1900). The average land-surface air temperature has enhanced by 1.53°C (1.38-1.68°C), whereas, world’s surface (including land and ocean) air temperature has enhanced by 0.87°C (0.75-0.99°C). Subsequently, global warming triggered the frequency, intensity and duration of heat waves and related damage. The direct and indirect impacts of climate change on global agriculture is summarised below for an overall idea about the importance of the issues.

The performance of plants is affected by the soil in which it grows and climate and micro climate of its surroundings.

Impact of soil

The soil provides anchorage, nutrients and water for plant growth. Soil fertility status, structure and texture influence the plant growth and productivity.

Classification of soil

On the basis of the organic and inorganic contents and particle size and texture, the soils have been classified. The inorganic matter in the soil constitutes of varying amount of sand, silt and clay, on the basis of which the soils are classified as follows.

Sandy soil

These soils have coarse textured and large pore spaces, have poor water holding capacity. Retention of nutrients in this soil is very poor. This type of soil is suitable for precocious crops. Sandy soils initiate rapid root growth, hence good as propagating medium. Since sandy soils has low in nutrient content, supplementation of adequate nutrition is imperative to achieve good plant growth.

Impatiens is the most popular bedding plant grown worldwide. The genus Impatiens is estimated to contain about 850 species (Grey-Wilson, 1980b). The majority is native to tropical and subtropical regions of India and Africa. The popularity of Impatiens walleriana is mainly due to its propensity for producing large numbers of flowers under low light intensity (Simmonds, 1980). Due to the high economic value and consumer demand for bedding impatiens, there has been a concerted effort by plant breeders to release a wide range of cultivars having different flower colours and distinctive foliage. Previously known as I. sultanior, I. holstii, it has several common names including “Busy Lizzie” and “Patience Plant”. It is one of two important groups of Impatiens in the horticulture industry with the New Guinea Impatiens (Impatiens hawkeri) group being the other. Despite being Impatiens walleriana is one of the most important bedding plants in the world, information on I. walleriana relatively scarce. Impatiens walleriana continues to lead as one of the three most important bedding plants worldwide. It is available as both seed and vegetative products. The history of its development, marketing success, wide adaptability, a large palette of flower colours and forms and unparalleled garden performance as a bedding plant for shade are described as an aid for continued crop development with breeding lessons for other flowering crops.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Jones and Smith (1966) proposed the Himalayan region as the centre of origin. Khoshoo (1957) and Gill and Chinnappa (1977) stated that the genus Impatiens contains over 600 species half of which occur in the Indian subcontinent. The major centers of diversity are in the highlands and mountains of tropical and sub-tropical India, Africa and Southeast Asia. There are only a few Holarctic species and none indigenous to South America or Australia (Zinov’ea-Stahevitch, and Grant, 1984). Impatiens walleriana also known by the names I. sultani Hook. f. and I. holstii Engl. is native to areas of Eastern Equatorial Africa including Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique Malawi and Rhodesia; as well as Zanzibar and Pemba Islands.

Typically, African impatiens are highly endemic forest species, which thrive in moist semi-shade areas, and often in high altitude regions that receive ample rainfall (Grey-Wilson, 1980). Nearly all African Impatiens are native to habitats above 800 m and one third can only be found in habitats above 1500 m. However, I. walleriana may also thrive at lower elevations provided that these areas receive increased rainfall from monsoons (Grey-Wilson, 1980).

Impatiens is the most popular bedding plant grown worldwide. The genus Impatiens is estimated to contain about 850 species (Grey-Wilson, 1980b). The majority is native to tropical and subtropical regions of India and Africa. The popularity of Impatiens walleriana is mainly due to its propensity for producing large numbers of flowers under low light intensity (Simmonds, 1980). Due to the high economic value and consumer demand for bedding impatiens, there has been a concerted effort by plant breeders to release a wide range of cultivars having different flower colours and distinctive foliage. Previously known as I. sultanior, I. holstii, it has several common names including “Busy Lizzie” and “Patience Plant”. It is one of two important groups of Impatiens in the horticulture industry with the New Guinea Impatiens (Impatiens hawkeri) group being the other. Despite being Impatiens walleriana is one of the most important bedding plants in the world, information on I. walleriana relatively scarce. Impatiens walleriana continues to lead as one of the three most important bedding plants worldwide. It is available as both seed and vegetative products. The history of its development, marketing success, wide adaptability, a large palette of flower colours and forms and unparalleled garden performance as a bedding plant for shade are described as an aid for continued crop development with breeding lessons for other flowering crops.

Cut flowers have become an important segment of modern commercial floriculture because of their high economic value, domestic demand, export potential and employment-generating capacity. This chapter introduces the importance and scope of cut flower production in India and internationally. It examines the economic, social, employment and export significance of flowers and discusses major commercially cultivated crops such as rose, chrysanthemum, gerbera, gladiolus, carnation, lily, orchid, anthurium and tuberose. The chapter also identifies production constraints including labour, infrastructure, cold-chain limitations and market fluctuations, while highlighting opportunities arising from protected cultivation, precision farming, technology, exports and increasing consumer demand.

The association of flowers with mankind is evidenced since dawn of the civilization. For many centuries, flowers play an important role in each and every occasions of life and no social function is considered complete without the use of flowers. Flowers are regarded as the symbol of love, beauty and a gift of nature. In India, there is a popular saying that flowers are associated with man from birth till death.

Floriculture can be defined as a specialized branch of horticulture which deals not only with the cultivation of flowers, foliage plants, climbers, trees, shrubs, cacti, succulents, etc., but also their marketing and production of value-added products from them.

Floriculture is increasingly regarded as a viable diversification from the traditional field crops due to higher returns per unit area. Flowers play a cardinal role in human behaviour and culture, bringing tranquillity and peace of mind. From a symbol of love, flowers have transformed into an industry, generating both income as well as employment. During the past few decades, appreciation of the potential of the commercial floriculture has resulted in the blossoming of this field into a viable agri-business option. The varied agro-climatic conditions prevailing in India and wide availability of natural resources are conducive for production of a large number of flowering and ornamental crops almost throughout the year. The commercial production and marketing of flowers and floriculture products have also increased during recent years due to improved marketing and communication facilities, making availability of these throughout the country and generating a huge employment.

Horticulture is of immense importance for human beings. Among these major ones are nutritional importance, economic importance, medicinal values, environmental balance, aesthetic value and recreation. These are as follows.

1. Nutritional importance: Healthy body maintains a healthy mind. Human body requires vitamins, minerals, proteins, energy, fibers, etc. for its health. Fruits and vegetables are the chief sources of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, organic acids, fibers, etc. Consumption of fruits and vegetables keeps the human body away from several illnessess and hence are recognized as protective foods; necessary for the maintenance of human health. As per the Indian Council of Medical Research; consumption of at least 120 g of fruits and 280-300 g of vegetables per day per capita is essential. Among vegetables, 80-100 g of leafy vegetables, 100-125 g of tubers as energy source and reamaining as other vegetables. However, the consumption of fruits per capita in India is still low. In countries like Italy, France and USA; the daily fruit consumption is 308, 232 and 223 g respectively. 

Horticulture means the cultivation of garden plants. The garden plants are comprised of fruits, vegetables, ornamentals etc. The culture covers the operation from raising and planting of saplings to the ultimate use of the products and, as such, it is the most intensive of all the agricultural sciences. However, the concept of growing plants in garden or in an enclosure does not fit well in the changed perspective where large scale cultivation of fruits, vegetables and flowers extending over several square kilometers, in many a place nowadays, delimits the boundary of garden.

Importance of Horticulture

The importances of horticulture are established not only as a source of nutritious foods but also in many other ways which are narrated in the following points:

Social- Due to the long association, the fruits are seen to have a permanent seat in the social life of man. As a consequence, various fruits have acquired their place in art, music, literature, customs and habits of various nations of the world. The description of fruit as symbolic insertion in the poems and literatures, the use of whole fruit plant or part thereof in various social festive and public gathering, and conferring titles to individuals in the name of fruits or naming a region or whole district after the name of a fruit are nothing but an indication of their popularities and social position in various countries.

The history of gardening in India is older than civilizations of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. During the pre-Aryan period (around 2500 B.C.), Indians were cultivating flowers and plants of religious significance. Later importance of gardening was not properly understood in India. But presently, importance of landscaping and gardening is realised by planners and landscaping has now become an integral part of any new establishment or property. Due to urbanization and industrialization, pollution has increased considerably and landscaping is one of the best options to reduce the problem. Landscaping is an art of beautifying a piece of land or garden or a landscape with planting materials and non-living materials in order to create a picturesque effect or to imitate nature in that particular land for human use. The importance of landscape gardening can be divided into three categories.

Loose flowers occupy an important position in Indian floriculture because of their extensive use in garlands, Veni, Rangoli, worship, festivals, weddings, decoration and perfumery. Crops such as marigold, jasmine, chrysanthemum, tuberose, rose, crossandra and gomphrena provide livelihood opportunities for small and marginal farmers and rural workers. This chapter discusses the cultural, economic and employment significance of loose flowers, along with value-addition opportunities in essential oils, natural pigments, floral waters, cosmetics and food products. It also examines the national and international scenario, production constraints, postharvest challenges, market opportunities, emerging technologies and prospects for entrepreneurship in the loose flower sector.