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Jasmine (Jasminum spp) is one of the oldest fragrant flowers cultivated by man. They are the most common flowers in India gardens.

Importance and Uses

They are traditionally important flowers not only as fresh flowers but also as source of high grade perfume oil. Mention of jasmine is there in ancient Indian literature like Kamasutra (AD 300-400) and Mahabharatha (500 BC). The odour of jasmine flowers cannot be imitated by any known synthetic chemical or natural isolates, thus giving it a unique status in the perfume world.

Introduction

Plants are grown both as shrub and climber. Flowers and flower buds are used for making garlands and Veni and for religious offerings. Jasmine oil extracted from the flower is highly valued as it is used in manufacturing perfumes, cosmetics, creams, hair oils, soaps and shampoos.

Flowers are used in jasmine tea or herbal or black tea. As a medicinal plant, jasmine has traditionally been considered an aphrodisiac and calmative. In India, it is grown in different states especially Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal because their flower and floral buds are in great demand.

Genetics

The genus with basic chromosome number of n=13 generally consists of forms with 2n=26. However, natural occurrence of higher ploidy was also observed in J. sambac cv. Gundumalli (2n=39), cultivated variety of J. flexile (2n=52), J. primulinum (2n=39) and J. angustifolium (2n=52).

Jasmines constitute a group of traditional flower crops which are commercially grown for their fragrant flowers and essential oil production. There are trailing, climbing, and erect growing species and cultivars in the genus Jasminum. The genus Jasminum comprises of more than 200 species which are known to occur in different tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The countries growing Jasmines on a commercial scale are India, France, Italy, Morocco, Algeria, North Africa, Egypt and Spain. More than 80 Jasminum species are found in India, of which only four species viz., Jasminum sambac (Mogra / Gundumalli), Jasminum auriculatum (Jui / Mullai), Jasminum multiflorum syn Jasminum pubescens (Kunda / Kakda) and Jasminum grandiflorum (Jai / Pitchi) are widely used for commercial cultivation. Jasmines are commercially grown in many parts of the country as a dry land crop. The leading states in jasmine production are South Indian states like Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. In India, the commercial cultivation of jasmines are popular in Athoor, Coimbatore, Dharampuri, Dindigul, Erode, Krishnagiri, Madurai, Nilakottai, Periakulam, Salem, Thiruchirapalli, Thirunelveli, Thiruvallur, Tirumanagalam, Vellore, Virudhunagar etc. in Tamil Nadu; Bangalore, Bellary, Kolar, Mysore, Shimoga, Tumkur etc. in Karnataka ; Hyderabad, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Mancherial, Ranga Reddy, Sangareddy, Vikarabad, Warangal Rural, Yadadri etc. in Telangana; Anantapur, Chittoor, Cuddapah, East Godavari, Guntur, Krishna, Kurnool, Nellore, Prakasam, West Godavari etc. in Andhra Pradesh; Ahmednagar, Aurangabad, Pune, Sangli etc. in Maharashtra; Ahmedabad, Anand, Bharuch, Bhavnagar, Kutch, Vadodara etc. in Gujarat; Gazipur, Jaunpur, Kannauj etc. in Uttar Pradesh; Ajmer, Jaipur, Kota, Udaipur etc. in Rajasthan; Panskura Ranaghat etc. in West Bengal; Guwahati, Hoja, Jorhat etc. in Assam ; and parts of Punjab and Delhi. Jasmines contributes markedly to the national economy and it is estimated that annually more than 20 crores worth of jasmine flowers are produced and traded in India and are also exported to countries like Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, UAE and United States (Safeena et al., 2017).

The exile of Rama and his journey to the forests (vanvasa) for 14 years was started from Ayodhya (Uttar Pradesh, India) and ended to Lanka (Sri Lanka), through different forests, territorial regions, lands, hills, lakes of old India. The whole journey to those places was candidly portrayed in Ramayana with vivid descriptions, from narrations of the night sky, the position of different stars to descriptions of the flora, fauna and landscape. In this chapter, a retrospection of the places, forests, Rama passed through during his entire journey has been documented. The present status of those forests and places has been considered to evaluate a comparison over the thousands of years and the changes taken place besides significance they hold till date (Anonymous, 2024; Iyer, 2014).

Journey to the Forest and Route Map

Ayodhya, the capital city, kingdom of Kosala, was situated on the banks of holy river Saryu and was the birthplace of Rama. To fulfill the wish of his father, king Dasharatha, Rama left Ayodhya for 14 years of exile to the forest, along with Sita and Lakshmana. Their journey started from Ayodhya and passed through different places / forests.

Juvenility

Juvenility is referred to the phase of plant growth following germination from seed during which flowering does not occur and the bud meristem is not competent to respond to seasonal environmental inductive cues, and hence plant remains vegetative. The changes from juvenile to mature characteristics are well known as phase changes phenomenon. Plants are unable to initiate flowering after germination and have to undergo in a juvenile developmental phase. This transition period (phase) is a gradual and continuous process until the flowering takes place. The length of this phase varies considerably between different species. In annuals like Arabidopsis, the juvenile phase is typically very short, whereas in perennials like hybrid aspen, it is several years.

A plant is considered juvenile from the time it is at seedling stage until it is mature and capable of initiating flowering. Length of juvenile period in most of woody plants is still considered as a big problem. Indeed, it affects the plant breeding efficiency, plant propagation, and selection of new cultivars. In fact, juvenility is a complex phenomenon still not fully understood. Juvenility period extends from seed germination until the plant attains the ability to flower. Furthermore, all the stages namely seed germination, juvenile growth period and transition to the reproductive stage until fruitful inflorescence development are long and not always synchronous in the seedling population. It arrives at the age 30-40 years in Fagus sylvatica L., and at l0 years or even more in olives. Juvenile period is affected by both environmental and genetic factors. Attempts made in past to overcome juvenile period in most woody plants on the environmental level have shown very limited success.

Kair (Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Edgew, is an under-exploited, drought hardy, multipurpose, perennial, woody shrub or small tree found in hot arid regions of many regions of the world. It is a many branched, leafless and spinose plant capable of growing in different habitats. Due to its xerophytic adaptive nature, the plant grows successfully under harsh climatic conditions of arid regions. The immature fruits are used as fresh vegetables and also in the preparation of pickles. Dehydrated fruits are used in off season as vegetables either alone or in combination with other dried vegetables. Dehydrated kair is one of the important ingredients of ‘panchkuta’, a dehydrated mixture of sangri, kair, kachri, kumat and kamal kakri. However, mature unripe fruits without processing are unpalatable as these contain high concentration of glucosinolates. Ripe fruits are sweet and acrid and enjoyed by children in natives.

Kangaroo Paws (Anigozanthos spp.) belongs to family Haemodoraceae. It is commonly known as Sword-like or Iris-like. The word Anigozanthos was coined by French botanist Jacques de La Billardiere. This is derived from Greek words “anoigo” meaning to “expand or unequal” and “anthos” meaning “flower or irregular corolla”. It can be used as cut flower, pot plant, landscape plants or dry flower (Gui et al., 2005). The kangaroo paws is gaining popularity among gardeners, horticulturists, nursery man also in world market due to its beautiful, unique, colourful pattern of flowers and also being perennial in nature.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

It is originated in Australia. Louden’s Hortus Britanicus, A Catalog of a Plants Endemic, Cultivated or Introduced to Britain, written in 1830, states that in 1808 Anigozanthos manglesii was introduced by Robert Mangles who had possibly received seed from his brothers in New Holland. Anigozanthos rufus was introduced into cultivation in 1824. The Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening dates of the Botanical Magazine Plates are listed as A. flavida 1808 (BM 1151), A. manglesii 1833 BR, A. pulcherrimus 1844 (BM 4507). The first report of introduction of 8-10 species of Anigozanthos under green house from Australia in USA was reported in 1902 edition of Bailey’s Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. The first hybrid Bush Gems was introduced from Australia by Mr. Meyer, he had also made good selection of A. rufus and A. pulcherrimus these were propagated by Oglesby tissue culture lab. Many of them were released for sale at the Huntington Gardens annual plant sale in 1985.

All species of Kangaroo paw are restricted in distribution to the southern areas of Western Australia. Anigozanthos flavidus occurs in the extreme south west of Western Australia growing from Augusta east to Two Peoples Bay and north to Waroona. It can be found on roadsides, river banks, swamps, shallow water and in eucalypt forests, tolerating light shade. The species A. manglesii is widely distributed throughout the Southwest Australian bio geographic regions, preferring white, yellow or grey sand or sandy loam. The occurrence is confirmed in the northernmost part of its range in the Geraldton Sandplains and the Swan Coastal Plain near Perth. Extensive records also exist of occurrence in Jarrah Forest and Warren region to the south but not reaching the southern coasts. It extends inland to the Avon Wheatbelt.

Kangkong also known as water spinach, water convolvulus and swamp cabbage is an important leaf vegetable in South East Asia including Taiwan and Malaysia. It is a semi aquatic herbaceous plant having trailing or floating habit; sometimes it is biennial or perennial. Normally the main shoot of this plant trails horizontally and lateral shoots bear leaves and flowers and trail like the main shoot. Stem is hollow and leaves are arranged alternate. The succulent foliage is light green and leaves are elliptic or ovate oblong and cordate at the base. Flowers are 2.5 to 5 cm long, white or pale purple with dark purple eye, solitary or in five flowered cyme. Fruit is a capsule, ovoid and smooth with 2 to 4 seeds. This crop is ideally suited to areas where water stagnation is a problem and is found trailing on moist soil or mud along margins of stagnant ponds, streams, marshes and wet rice fields. It is sometimes found floating on water surface. At every node, it produces a number of adventitious roots.

Karonda is an indigenous, under utilized fruit of India. It is a hardy multipurpose horticultural bush flourishing well without much care in arid and semi-arid areas. At present ,emphasis is being laid on protection and  production value of karonda plant. It is grown as hedge for beautification which  serves as one of the best bio-fencing materials because of  thorny  nature. It is also grown as an ornamental plant due to its beautiful cherry like fruits. Karonda plants are useful in many ways as detailed  below:
 
Fruit: Karonda fruit is a rich source of iron and contains a fair amount of vitamin C, and therefore very useful for curing of anaemia and has antiscorbutic properties. Enthomedically,  fruits are used as an astringent, antisorbutic and as a remedy for biliousness. Mature fruit contains high amount of pectin  and therefore, besides being used for making pickles and chutney, it can be exploited  for making jelly. Raw fruit can be used for making chatney.

Leaf: Karonda leaves are palatable and contain a fair amount of nutrient which are browsed by sheep, goats and camels in arid and semi arid areas.If fruits fall on ground, enrich soil by adding organic carbon and other mineral nutrients. It reduces evaporation  from  soil underneath due to dense foliage. Leaves  are used for feeding silk worm.  Leaf decoction is used against intermittent fever, diarrhoea, oral inflammation and ear ache.

1. Introduction

Karonda is widespread throughout India, primarily in arid and semi-arid regions. As a hedge plant, the Karonda tree is frequently grown in residential gardens, farmer’s fields, and orchards. Karonda is widely used as a condiment or ingredient to Indian pickle and spices. It is a commonly growing indigenous shrub in India that may thrive in marginal and wasteland areas where other commercially important crops are unsuited. Karonda fruits are used in processed goods like as jam, jelly, squash, syrup, and chutney, and they are in high demand on the international market. Karonda is a rich source of nutrition and have highest Iron. The karonda fruits also contain vitamin C and it has antiscorbutic properties and helps to cure anaemia (Table 1). The fruits of Karonda are also used in many ayurvedic formulations. Root extract is used to reduce Chest pain.

A family of about 236 genera and 7,200 species, Labiatae are cosmopolitan in their distribution and their chief centre is the Mediterranean region. About 65 genera and over 400 species have been reported from India, mainly distributed in North Western parts of India and southern parts of India. Some largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their worldover reported species and common names of some of them are Salvia (500-700, sage), Hyptis (400), Thymus (300-400, thyme), Teucrium (300, germander), Stachys (300), Scutellaria (200, skullcap), Coleus (200, Jacob’s coat), Ocimum (150, basil), Nepeta (150, catnip), Lavendula (28, lavender), Mentha (25, mint) and Rosmarinus (3, rosemary).
Salvia is a tender herbaceous annual or perennial plant and cultivated as bedding plant in many countries. Owing to its adaptability, self sowing ability and handsome appearance, it has been introduced and commanded all over the world. Salvia species have long history of utilization as medicinal herbs. The therapeutic value of this crop is widely recognized in traditional Chinese medicine for various ailments. Some species are strongly aromatic having
horticultural, commercial and medicinal values.

A family of about 236 genera and 7,200 species, Labiatae are cosmopolitan in their distribution and their chief centre is the Mediterranean region. About 65 genera and over 400 species have been reported from India, mainly distributed in North Western parts of India and southern parts of India. Some largely represented genera along with the approximate number of their worldover reported species and common names of some of them are Salvia (500-700, sage), Hyptis (400), Thymus (300-400, thyme), Teucrium (300, germander), Stachys (300), Scutellaria (200, skullcap), Coleus (200, Jacob’s coat), Ocimum (150, basil), Nepeta (150, catnip), Lavendula (28, lavender), Mentha (25, mint) and Rosmarinus (3, rosemary).
Salvia is a tender herbaceous annual or perennial plant and cultivated as bedding plant in many countries. Owing to its adaptability, self sowing ability and handsome appearance, it has been introduced and commanded all over the world. Salvia species have long history of utilization as medicinal herbs. The therapeutic value of this crop is widely recognized in traditional Chinese medicine for various ailments. Some species are strongly aromatic having
horticultural, commercial and medicinal values.

1. Banks of rivers and canals

The banks of river and canal passing through town and villages are well suited for landscaping. Landscaping is one of the important processes for beautification and preventing the soil erosion near the bank of river and canal. With the help of landscaping, people can take advantage of pleasant scenery and natural environment. The plants themselves will objects of beauty and their reflection on the water surface is an additional attraction.

Dioscorea alata is commonly called greater yam or larger yam or water yam.  This is the most widely distributed species of yam. This species originated in South East Asia, probably in Burma. From there, it first spread to India, Malaysia, Indonesia and the eastern portion of South East Asia.  Later it served as food for voyagers and thereby spread to other parts of the tropics.  Immigrants from India and Malaysia introduced it to Madagascar, from where it was partially introduced into East Africa and Portuguese and Spanish voyager traders of the 16th century probably introduced it into West Africa and later to West Indies.

Lawn is an integral part of any garden and it gives pleasure while sitting during evening in summer and one can enjoy good sunshine during winter. Hence, it is often referred as “heart of the garden”. It is covered with perennial grass and provides open landscape to the house and adds aesthetic beauty to the surroundings. Good lawn is essential to have in a good garden. It is permanent feature, which occupies 60% share of total garden area. Here in this chapter lawn is divided into two parts. There are approximately 620 genera and 10,000 species of grasses worldwide. Grasses are used extensively used throughout the world for their beauty and utility. Grasses are found from temperate to tropical to arid semi arid regions and suits in most extreme climatic conditions and have adapted to a worldwide climate and zones. Grasses are used as fodder, food, medicinal and for aesthetics purpose and it belongs to family Gramineae.

Lawn

The lawn is a plot of closely mowed grasses. It is composed of thousands of individual plants crowded and forced into a very unnatural growth habit. It is an integral part of the garden. It is basically an area of land planted between gardens covered with grass and other low lying plants.

Lawn is one of the most important features of a garden. A well kept lawn makes a garden look extremely beautiful. It looks like a beautiful green carpet amidst colourful flowers in a garden. Lawn can be called as turf, pitch, field or green depending upon its plantation and usage. Selection of lawn grass depends upon it usage and its season of plantation. Though a well maintained lawn requires a little of patience and care, the final results are always very beautiful and soothing. Scientific reports say that lawns reduce energy consumption through it soothing effects and the green grass prevents soil erosion as well as cut down noise pollution in the urban areas.

Lawn

Lawn is a natural green carpet, and it is important feature of a landscape and a garden without a lawn is not considerd complete. Lawn is an area of land closed mowed grasses it is primarily developed for aesthetic and recreational purpose. A lawn is an integral part of a garden and landscape besides aesthetic and recreational purpose and several other purposes. Lawn provides a place for taking rest after tiring of the day, holding parties, social functions, passive and active recreation. Distinguishing characteristic of turf grasses is the ability to with stand close mowing and still providing a functional dense healthy ground cover. Lawn is also called as heart of garden. Lawn can be called as turf pitch a field, sod, yard, are green depending upon the plantation usage continent. Lawn is a ground cover of perennial grass, ditch, persists enclose mowing and require proper management practice.

J.B. Olcoth designed first experiment in lawn grass at Monchester in USA in the 19th century. Festuca and Agrostis species were used to make turf (Lawn) during 1880 in U.K. In the early 19th century lawn become wild spread out side of parks golf course. Now a day in many metro cities of India lawn has become a cultural of the passion of many homes.

Lawn is the basic feature of garden without which a garden is seldom complete. All other features are selected and placed considering lawn as a first primary feature. A well spread out land planted with uniform lush green grass of particular type serves as a heart of all gardens. Lawn with systematic planting of shrubs and seasonal flower beds along with well placed specimen plants is the most striking feature of the garden.

Developing a good lawn is not an easy task. One has to consider many things like selection of site, preparation of the land and type of grass to be planted besides its maintenance. Following points need to be considered while developing a lawn.

Site and Soil

Selection of site is an important primary factor. Under full or partial shade, a good lawn can not be developed. The part of proposed garden which receives full sunlight at least four hours a day preferably in the morning should be selected as a site for lawn. Planting of tall trees is to be avoided at the south and south-eastern side of the lawn which obstructs sunlight and provides shade.

Definition: A lawn is an area of land of closely mowed grasses that is primarily developed for aesthetic and recreational purpose.

A lawn is an integral part of a garden or landscape. Besides aesthetic and recreational purposes, lawn serves several other purposes. The distinguishing characteristic of turf grasses is the ability to withstand close mowing and still providing a functional, dense and healthy ground cover. Its maintenance requires little patience and care, however the final result is always worth waiting as it gives very beautiful and soothing effect to the landscape. It is also called as ‘Heart of garden’.

Lawn can be called as turf, pitch, field, sod, yard or green depending upon the plantation, usage and continent.

The landscape gardening for aesthetic appreciation is an integral part of the progress achieved through the growing world floriculture business that has reached a $ 40 billion mark and valueless aesthetic emotional gains. The industry is continuously rising through transitional changes to have more accepted and unique applications as a wide and economic choice to the consumers with regards to the energy saving in the system. The use of energy for sustenance of the landscape plants before and after planting can be a benchmark in time to come as no one can believe that the plants instead can grow with still better traits either be it the foliage colour, variegation, shape, size and or form beside the fact that the consumption of such altered/compact plants has increased manifold in house, gardens, parks and indoors with a large number of products worldwide in a eco-friendly manner.

At the same time there is great environmental consciousness towards transforming landscape gardening with more natural and unspoiled system of growing plants and maintaining them in the landscape as perennial ones. The system being independent of distance of use or application offers an ease of transport into a mass for large-scale uniform planting. This is the fact that in the recent times, the commercial growers do not rely on the nature to introduce the genetic mutation that will make them millionaires but depends on the art and scientific knowhow to create a novelty in its own. This has resulted in the seriousness and painstaking effort of the growers to produce the plants round the year in new forms and shapes to put forward a new plant with extra-ordinary marketable characteristics every year, e.g. compact chrysanthemum, kalanchoe, bromeliads, orchids, etc are some of the common products with an unusual and eye-catching hue in the auction markets. Similarly, a large number of annual and perennial plants perfectly suited for various kind of landscaping, slope, soil types and moisture regimes under the specific and artificial environment created for a specific growth of the plant.