eChapters

The  Camellia  is  one  of  our  most  beautiful  and most  appreciated ornamental  plants belonging to the family Theaceae. The genus Camellia was named by Linnaeus after the Jesuit botanist “Georg Joseph Kamel”. Camellias represent gratitude, love and perfection and are a perfect way to tell someone they possess those qualities. The camellia is the state flower of Alabama. Industrial use of Camellia is in the oil industry. Seeds of several species belonging to the sections Oleifera, Paracamellia, Camellia and Furfuracea are used for extracting edible oil, which is used extensively for cooking in China (Ming, 2000, Gao et al., 2005 and Zhang et al., 2007). In China, more than 3 million hectares are used for camellia oil production and nearly 645000 tons of seeds are harvested each year, which yield nearly 164000 tons of edible oil (Ming, 2000 and Gao et al., 2005).

The Camellia is one of our most beautiful and most appreciated ornamental plants belonging to the family Theaceae. The genus Camellia was named by Linnaeus after the Jesuit botanist “Georg Joseph Kamel”. Camellias represent gratitude, love and perfection and are a perfect way to tell someone they possess those qualities. The camellia is the state flower of Alabama. Industrial use of Camellia is in the oil industry. Seeds of several species belonging to the sections Oleifera, Paracamellia, Camellia and Furfuracea are used for extracting edible oil, which is used extensively for cooking in China (Ming, 2000, Gao et al., 2005 and Zhang et al., 2007). In China, more than 3 million hectares are used for camellia oil production and nearly 645000 tons of seeds are harvested each year, which yield nearly 164000 tons of edible oil (Ming, 2000 and Gao et al., 2005).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Since it is a native of warm temperate regions (southern China) and thrive throughout a wide area extending from Washinton, D.C., south through Georgia and Florida, west along the Gulf Coast and north along the Pacific Coast as far as Seattle. Species of Camellia are largely distributed in south-eastern and eastern Asia and China, which, being the centre of species diversity, possess more than 80% of the species (Gao et al., 2005).

Diploid Camellia reticulata was discovered in the Jinshajiang valley, Yunnan and Sichuan provinces, China, at an elevation of 1650-2800 m and under high humidity conditions (Xia et al., 1994). Yunnan province is the centre of origin for C. reticulata (Xia et al., 1994). The most important ornamental species is C. japonica L., of which there are over 32000 registered cultivars (Savige, 1993). Today, plants from C. japonica, C. reticulata, C. sasanqua and a group of yellow-flowering species called golden camellias are grown as ornamental plants worldwide. The family can be divided into three groups of similar genera (Prince and Parks, 2002).

8.1. Introduction

The term canning refers to a process which involves heating food stuff in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at specific temperature to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health and micro-organisms as well as enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. The canning of fruits and vegetables is canned out in the season when they are available in plenty. The canned products are then sold in the off season for getting better returns and to assure availability of fruits and vegetables throughout the year at reasonable prices.

8.2. History of canning

Important historical developments in canning are as under:

• The credit for invention of canning goes to Nicholas Appert, a French confectioner who was awarded a prize in 1809 by the French government for developing new method of heat preservation of food in sealed container and after whose name the process of canning is known as Appertization.

• In year 1810, Appert published the first book on canning entitled The Art of Preserving Animal and vegetable substances for many years which is the first known work on canning.

• The work of Appert consists of packing food in glass bottles, closing with corks and heating the container in boiling water for several minutes depending upon type of food.

33.1. Aim

To perform canning of fruit and vegetables.

33.2. Theory

Canning refers to a process which involves heating food stuff in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at specific temperature to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health as well as micro-organisms and enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. Broadly canning is a method of preservation of food for achieving longer shelf-life.

33.3. Principle of canning

Destruction of spoilage causing micro-organisms and enzymes within the sealed containers by means of heat.

Canning: Canning is the process by which sealing of the food product and sterilizing them by heat for long storage is known as canning.

History: The term canning was first invented by N. Appert (1804) in France. In honour of the inventor canning is also known as appertization (Appart is known as the father of canning) and Saddington (1807) in England first described the method of canning. Peter Durand (1810) got first british patent on canning of food in tin container and William under wood introduced canning of fruit on a commercial scale in U.S.A.

Principle of canning: The main principle of canning is destruction of spoilage organism by means of heat.

When fruit trees grow naturally; canopy varies greatly from species to species and cultivar to cultivar. It is mainly due to climate, planting density, rootstock, method of propagation, training, pruning, regularity of bearing, soil type, nutrition, irrigation, intercrop, growth regulators used, diseases, pests, environmental pollution etc. Plant canopy means the spread of branches and foliage of a plant.

Canopy management of the fruit tree deals with the development and maintenance of their structure in relation to the size and shape for the maximum productivity and quality. The basic concept in canopy management of a perennial tree is to make the best use of the land and climatic factors for an increased productivity in a three dimensional approach. Ideal canopy means fruit trees should have adequate number of fruiting units, it allows sufficient light and ventilation in to canopy and it should support adequate foliage and protect the fruits from sunburn. It should avoid overlapping of foliage to minimize parasitic leaves. It offers scope for effective coverage of sprays. It should avoid the buildup of microclimate, congenial for pest and diseases development. Tree vigour, light, temperature and humidity play a vital role in the production and quality of the fruits.

Training and pruning of horticultural crops is very important practice to obtain a strong frame work of tree and sustained productivity. It is necessary to understand the various terms used to make the subject more comprehendible.

Crotch: It is the angle made by the scaffold limb to the trunk or the secondary branch to the scaffold limb.

Head: The point on the trunk from which first branch arises.

Leader: It is the main stem growing from ground level up to the tip dominating all other branches.

Low head trees: Trees in which scaffold branches arise within 60-70 cm height from the ground level.

High head trees: Trees in which the scaffold branch arise 120 cm above the trunk.

Scaffold branches: The main branches arising from the head are known as scaffold branches.

Commercial capers are the immature flower buds, which have been pickled in vinegar or preserved in granular salt; they are used raw or cooked as condiment in different recipes. Semi- mature fruits (caper berries) and young shoots with small leaves may also be use as a condiment in salads or as an appetizer before meal. Capers and caper plants, wild and/or cultivated, are used in almost all the area of Capparis subgenus Capparis, extending from West Africa to the Norfolk islands in the Pacific, and most of the species are of alimentary or medicinal interest (Rivera, Inocencio, Obón & Alcaraz, 2003).

Capparis is a term coined by Theophrastus (4th cent. BC) and validated by Dioscorides (1st cent. AD) (Êáððáñéò), although it seems not to have come into wide use until the spread of the Arab world.
 
Caper and its relatives in several European languages can be traced back to Classical Latin Capparis “caper”. Latin Capparis, in turn, was loaned from Greek kapparis [êáððáñéò], whose origin (as that of the plant) is unknown but probably West or Central Asia. Another theory links kapparis to the name of the island Cyprus (Kypros [Êáðñïò]), where capers grow abundantly.

Carambola (Averrhoa carambola) is a fruit of warm tropical and sub- tropical areas of the world. The fruit is oblong with three to six longitudinal ribs, resulting in a star shaped cross section when cut. Usually they have five ribs which give rise to common name of ‘five corners’ or ‘star fruit’. The tree is medium-sized, attractive and evergreen growing to about 10m. The fruit has emerged as an interesting addition to the table fruit, not only as fresh fruit, but also for its juice, decorative uses and sherbet qualities.

Global climate changing has been a focus for a long time in many fields, the increasing CO₂ concentration in atmosphere was considered as one main driving force for global warming. The increases in greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere contributed to raise concerns over climate change enhanced the role of forests and plantations in the global carbon cycle are growing as a great issue. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is one of the main greenhouse gases because a huge volume of CO₂ is added to the atmosphere, when compare to all other greenhouse gases and made itself as a primary agent of global warming. It contributed 72 per cent of the total anthropogenic greenhouse gases, causing between 9-26 per cent of the greenhouse effect (Kiehl and Trenberth, 1997). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), there has been an unprecedented warming trend during the 20th century. Scientists now have estimated that the average global surface temperature is likely to rise by 1.4 to 5.8°C by the end of the 21^st century (IPCC 2007).

The IPCC estimates that the level of carbon dioxide in today’s atmosphere is 31 per cent higher than it was at the start of the Industrial Revolution about 250 years ago. An atmospheric level of CO₂ has risen from 280 ppm at the pre-industrial to the present level of 375 ppm. Most of the increase has occurred in the second half of the 20^th century. The mitigation of climate change demands, determined commitment of scientists to develop strategies to effectively manage the issues of the changing climate through carbon sequestration. Carbon sequestration is ought to be a promising solution for reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide, an important greenhouse gas.

The young seedling stock and rooted cuttings as well as nursery plants require proper care and nourishment. The operations to be performed regularly in nurseries are as follows.

1. Shifting of plants: The nursery plants grown in the pots or polybags are to be shifted once in 2-3 months to avoid root penetration into the soil. If the taproot penetrates deep into the soil, the chances of mortality increases. Hence shifting of grafts and potted plants has to be done at the said intervals
2. Removal of rootstock sprouts: Once has to keep a constant watch on the sprouts arising on the rootstock, which are to be nipped off as and when, observed, to encourage rapid growth of scion shoots.
3. Irrigation: The young tender seedlings are exacting in their water requirement. Proper and judicious irrigation is an important indicator of a healthy nursery, which solves many problems in the nursery. There are many methods adopted in nurseries. However, it depends upon water availability, kind of nursery plants and its growth stage, etc. These methods are flow or flood irrigation, furrow irrigation, overhead irrigation through rose cans, automizers or sprinkler systems, etc.

Trees are the largest plant components of gardens and landscapes. However much architectural features dwarf them, for human beings, they are the largest living entities in the environment. Profoundly influencing our habits, styles of habitation, culture and daily life, trees have been revered, sanctified and given symbolic importance and above all, depended upon as means of livelihood by entire communities through the ages. Through folklore, traditional knowledge and rituals, the usefulness of trees has been handed down from generation to generation-in societies all over the world. In India, cave paintings and carvings in addition to ancient literary works document the aesthetic and medicinal knowledge of our forefathers about trees found in the sub-continent.

Trees differ in stature, branching habit, girth of trunk and branches, canopy structure, outline and crown shape. The colour of the foliage, its texture, glaze, shape and size, foliage colour, floral features and season of flowering also differ among trees. These characteristics in addition to giving distinctiveness, also determine their ornamental use in gardens and landscapes. In tropical gardens evergreen dicotyledons and palms dominate among the trees, whereas in temperate situations evergreen conifers are selected over the deciduous dicots for tree planting. Palms among trees are universally grown as avenue trees or as clumps in areas where they can be easily grown while the other trees are grown as such or pruned and trained into various forms or as bonsai in gardens.

Carnation is one of the important cut flower crops grown throughout the world and occupies prime position because of the attractive colour, shape and good vase life. Due to the excellent keeping quality, wide range of forms, ability to withstand long distant transportation and remarkable ability to rehydrate after continuous shipping, carnation is preferred by growers to roses and chrysanthemums in several flower exporting countries.

Although cut carnations are sold in western countries all the year round, they are in particular demand for the Valentines Day, Easter, Mothers Day and Christmas. While standard carnations are in great demand, the miniature types are fast gaining popularity for their potential role in floral arrangement and also as cut flower at comparatively low price. White and pink standard carnations are in the greatest demand followed by red, yellow and bicolour. The liking for a colour depends upon the time or season. The re standard types are preferred to other colours, especially during the Christmas. In contrast in miniatures, the terminal flower bud is pinched to encourage clusters of short-stemmed small flowers. These types are mainly used for flower arrangement. (Bhatt, 1989)

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) is a member of the family Caryophyllaceae. Dianthus word was first coined by Theophrastus from Greek word “dios” meaning divine and “anthos” meaning flower. It is a half hardy, perennial plant, propagated commercially by terminal cuttings. It is being produced as a cut flower in the world. Carnation cut flower trade contributed about 15% of the world flower market. Till now, new carnation varieties have been produced mainly through conventional breeding method. The breeding procedure typically consists of hybridization, self-pollination and selection (Holly and Baker, 1992). The breeding programme did not get enough momentum due to heterozygosity, limited gene pool and inadequate knowledge of genetic make up. However genetic engineering and molecular breeding have opened the way to achieve novel colour and good vase life of flowers.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

It is native of Mediterranean region and its distribution is restricted to Greece, Italy, Sicily and Sardinia (Tutin et al., 1993). According to Pliny, the centre of origin of carnation is Spain. The generic name Dianthus comes from writing of the Theophrastus who lived about 300 BC; dios, divine and anthos, flower; the flower of the gods. The species name caryophyllus is coined from Greek word Caryon, nut and phyllon, leaf. Linnaeus chose the species name, caryophyllus, after the genus of clove, as the fragrance from carnation is reminiscent of clove. The common word carnation probably comes from a Greek word coronation because of its use as decorating the crowns of Greek athletes during ancient times. Carnation has been cultivated for over 2000 years and today commercial cultivation is the result of 200 years of improvement and breeding. During sixteenth century its improvement work was started in various countries. The gardens of Italy, France, Germany, Holland and England have contributed much to the development of cultivars. The natural climates for carnation occur near 30^o N or S latitudes of equator and on the western edges of the continents.

INTRODUCTION

Carnation is one of the most beautiful and commercially important flower crop. It occupies prime position in the international cut flower trade and is a good commercial cut flower for internal market as well. Carnation flower can easily withstand long distance transportation as it has an excellent kee in ualit Its cut flowers with a 70 to 90 cm stem length, healthy and bright flower commands a better price. Carnations have a sweet fragrance and also commercially utilized for extraction of oil in France and the Netherlands. The volatile oil of carnation contain 40% benzyl benzoate, 30% eugenol, 7% phenylethyl alcohol, 5% benzyl salicylate and 1% methyl salicylate. It is used only in sophisticated perfumes. Carnation flowers round the year and have wider colour range like red, salmon, pink, purple, yellow, orange, bicolour, stripped, white and fancy combinations. The major break through in carnation flower industry was evolvement of cultivar William Sim. This cultivar was produced in 1938 to 1939 by William Sim of the USA. From this red variety there have been mutations to white, pink, orange and different variegated forms. The first genetically modified carnation variety Moon Dust is released in Australia by a plant biotechnology company Florigene. There are several distinct types of carnations and each of these can be grown in cooler parts of the plains and at medium to higher elevation. Carnations are cultivated under glasshouses in temperate countries and in the open or in semi-protected conditions under polythene cover, in both tropical and sub-tropical regions. Because of strong emphasis on quality in both export and domestic market, commercial production of spray and standard carnations is considered as a crop of protected conditions. Before being planted in the greenhouse, the crop must be carefully planted so that it will meet the demands of the international markets.

Abstract: Carnation, is one of the commercial flower crops of the world. There are many forms of carnations, which are excellent for cut flowers, bedding pots, edging and rock gardens. The history of crop improvement and development is highlighted. Their continued popularity has warranted extensive breeding and development of novel phenotypes particularly standards (Sims), sprays, midis, annual, picotees, perpetual, chabaud, malmaison, multiflora, microcarnations, etc. Continuous breeding and improvement of carnation focus on floral fragrance, floral doubleness, dwarf stature, high growth rate, floral colour, reduced calyx splitting, floral longevity and disease resistance. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern carnation breeders. Numerous genes have been identified and being used to create transformants. Wonderful results achieved through interspecific hybridization, mutation and polyploid breeding are discussed. Poor pollen production, inbreeding depression, linkage between traits, limited gene pool, inadequate seed production, reproductive barriers often pose significant challenges to breeders. Crop ideotypes prescribe numerous traits for incorporation by flower breeders and geneticists, including straight stem, symmetrical flower shape/ form, early/ uniform flowering with high productivity, enhanced shelf life and resistance to physiological disorders and various diseases.

Introduction

Carnation is one of the most beautiful and commercially important flower crops. It occupies prime position in the international cut flower trade and is a good commercial cut flower for internal market as well. Carnation flower can easily withstand long distance transportation as it has an excellent keeping.

The major breakthrough in carnation flower industry was evolvement of cultivar William Sim. This cultivar was produced in 1938 to 1939 by William Sim of the USA. From this red variety there have been mutations to white, pink, orange and different variegated forms.

The first genetically modified carnation variety Moondust was released in Australia by Florigene Company. They release another transgenic variety, i.e., Moonshadow.

In India carnation is grown intensively in Nasik, Pune, Srinagar, Bangaluru, Coimbatore, Delhi and Kolkata. Places having congenial climate like Kalimpong, Simla, Solan, Kullu, Ooty, Nainital, Chaubattia, Yercaud, Kodaikanal, etc. are most suitable areas for the production of cut flowers. From Himachal Pradesh and Ooty, rooted cuttings are supplied by the growers to the different parts of the country.

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) is one amongst the commercially important cut flowers traded worldwide. The genus Dianthus has about 300 species of annual, biennial and perennial herbs of which Dianthus caryophyllus is the most important species commercially. The genus Dianthus in Greek means ‘Flower of Zeus’ or ‘Divine Flower’. Linnaeus chose the species name, caryophyllus, after the genus of Clove, as the fragrance from carnation is reminiscent of clove. It is genetically a quantitative long day plant based on its photoperiod requirement (Blake, 1955). The Dianthus species are adapted to the cooler Alpine regions of Europe and Asia and are also found in Mediterranean coastal regions. Carnations were the first flowers to be cultivated on commercial scale in high altitude areas of tropics for export to Europe and North America.

It is cultivated throughout the world. The largest growing areas of carnation are in Bogota and Colombia. Carnation is also grown in Italy, Spain, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Canary Islands, France, Holland, Germany, Israel and USA. In India, main production areas are located around Pune and Bangalore. It is also being grown in Solan, Shimla, Mandi, Kullu, Chamba, Sirmour, Bilaspur and Hamirpur districts of Himachal Pradesh. As per the State Department of Horticulture - Himachal Pradesh, carnation occupied 44.07 hectares out of 705.77 hectare total area under floriculture in the state during 2018-19. The acreage of carnation is still expected to increase because of the favourable climatic conditions for its cultivation in different parts of Himachal Pradesh and other hilly states of the country.

In India, depending upon the regions, there is a wide difference in temperature, light intensity and humidity which not only affect the yield and quality of the flowers but also limit their availability for a particular period of the year. To produce quality flowers, carnation needs to be grown under cover, that is, in greenhouse which provides the plants with the optimum condition of light, temperature, humidity and carbon dioxide for proper growth and to achieve maximum yield of best quality flowers. Though, there are different types of the greenhouses, naturally ventilated polyhouses are preferred in mild climate in which temperature is reduced by ventilation (Ryagi et al., 2007).

This chapter introduces carnation as an important commercial cut flower requiring controlled environmental conditions for producing long, straight and high-quality stems. It discusses varieties, propagation, planting, irrigation, nutrition and cultural practices such as pinching, disbudding, deshooting and plant support. The chapter also addresses plant growth regulators, pest and disease management, harvesting, grading, storage and postharvest handling. Emphasis is placed on protected cultivation practices that improve flower quality, yield and market value.

It is represented by about 100 genera and over 2,200 species which are either annual or perennial, Caryophyllaceae are cosmopolitan in distribution, and mainly found in the north temperate or warm temperate regions of the world. Over 20 genera and about 100 species have so far been reported from India. Some of the larger genera, along with their common names and number of species in parenthesis include Silene (catchfly, 500), Dianthus (carnation, 300), Arenaria (sandwort, 250), Gypsophila (baby’s breath, 125), Stellaria (chickweed, 100), Cerastium (mouse-ear chickweed, 100), Drymaria (50), Spergula (40), Saponaria (30), etc.
Carnation, commonly named as ‘Divine flower’, ‘Clove pink’, and ‘Gilly flower’, is one of the most beautiful and commercially important flower crops of the world. It is excellent for cut flowers, bedding, pots, edging and rock gardens due to its exquisite shape, wide range of colours, light weight and good vase life. In Europe and USA, perpetual carnation is cultivated on large scale in greenhouses for production of cut flowers. In terrain parts of France and Holland, carnation flowers are used for perfume extraction and only light coloured flowers are useful for this purpose.
Description of Family
1. General habit: Mostly annual or perennial herbs, rarely suffrutescent shrubs; arctic forms are reduced and possess caespitose habit.
2. Stem: Herbaceous; rarely with a basal woody part; nodes swollen; branching usually dichotomous but sometimes monopodial.

It is a monotypic or unigeneric family represented by four genera containing about 91 species distributed mainly in north-east Australia and also in Fiji, New Caledonia, Malaysia and Mascarene islands. Only one species (Casuarina equisetifolia) occurs in India, and this is the most common species of the world.
Selected Genera
Casuarina, Gymnostoma, Allocasuarina, Ceuthostoma.
Economic Importance
Casuarina is important mainly as timber tree. The wood of C. equisetifolia, C. cunningbamia and C. stricta is used for furniture, for fuel and also for basket making. The bark of C. suberosa and C. stricta is utilized for tanning. C. equisetifolia is usually grown as an ornamental and also in order to reclaim sandy dunes in India and several countries.

Cattleya belongs to the family Orchidaceae. It is highly important in floriculture and has been cultivated since the 19^th century. The name “Cattleya” was given in the honour of “Sir William Cattley”. Cattleyas have earned the reputation as the “Queen of Orchids” and are known to the public as the ultimate in floral corsages. While no longer the reigning queen of the orchid floral industry it is difficult not to be impressed by a well-flowered Cattleya. No longer limited to white and various shades of lavender and purple, high quality flowers occur in all colours except true blue and black and in a wide range of plant sizes. They are widely known for their large, showy flowers and were used extensively in hybridization for the cut-flower trade until the 1980s when pot plants became more popular.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The genus was named in 1824 by John Lindley after Sir William Cattley who received and was the first to bloom a specimen of Cattleya labiata. William Swainson had discovered the new plant in Pernambuco, Brazil, in 1817 and shipped to the Glasgow Botanic Gardens for identification. After the first importation from Mr. Swainson, no more plants similar to the original Cattleya labiata were discovered for many decades, although many varieties of this species were found. Each variety differed in some way from the plant of Mr. Cattley, either in colour, blooming season or some similar horticultural aspect. Brazil is the centre of distribution, where more than half the species are found (Pabst and Dungs, 1975 and Cruz et al., 2003). They are found naturally only in the western hemisphere, occurring along with Laelias in three major regions of Tropical America i.e. Mexico and Guatemala, northern part of South America from the western Cordilleras of Colombia to British Guiana and the maritime provinces of southern Brazil. Within these three large regions are found most of the species of Cattleya except for C. dowiana in Costa Rica and C. skinneri var. autumnalis from Panama. The plants occur at considerable elevation where the mean temperature is much lower than the mean temperature for the latitude at sea level.

Climate change is caused by both natural as well as anthropogenic causes and it has been changing since the inception of earth-atmosphere (Figure 2.1). In a broader sense, anthropogenic activities (human activities) also must be considered as natural one in longer time scale as human and their activities are also a part of natural-ecosystem-functions. Among the natural phenomena, volcanic eruptions and continental drifts significantly affect the earth’s precipitation and temperature. A huge volume of CO₂ is released due to volcanic eruption at a little span of time-period which heated up the earth-atmosphere. Climate variability is primarily governed by rise in sea temperature, movement of warm water from the Western Pacific towards Peru, and El Nino which occurs at an intervals of 3-7 years. Climate variability also influenced the alteration in temperature and precipitation world wide. And persistent climate variability cause long term climate change. Therefore, basically three drivers that causes climate change are, the alteration in the energy of sun received by earth-atmosphere (natural causes), variations of ref lectivity of earth-surface- atmosphere system (natural as well as anthropogenic causes) and fluctuations in the greenhouse effect (natural as well as anthropogenic causes).

Introduction 
It is a common vegetable crop of rabi season which belongs to the family Apiaceae (Umbelliferae). Due to prevalence of protandry condition, the crop is cross pollinated in nature and self-pollination within individual flower is restricted. It comprised of three distinct cultivated varieties grown over the world for various economic purposes and classified as below depending upon usefulness of different parts.
Origin
It found is globally distributed in New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, Mediterranean basin, and South America, whereas Argentina and Chile are the richest sources. Habitat is extensively ranging from Egypt, Algeria, and Abyssinia to Sweden.

Celosia is an attractive flowering crop valued for its distinctive inflorescences, bright colours and use as loose and ornamental flowers. The crop includes forms such as Cristata, Plumosa and Spicata, with the characteristic brain-like appearance of cockscomb resulting from fasciation. This chapter deals with the origin, distribution, genetics, botanical features and important varieties of Celosia. It explains climatic and soil requirements, propagation, land preparation, nutrient management, planting, irrigation and cultural practices for commercial production. The chapter also covers plant growth regulation, insect pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest management and yield. Its practical approach makes it relevant to students, growers and floriculture entrepreneurs.

India has a wide agroclimatic range i.e. temperate, subtropical and tropical, enabling to achieve horticulture diversification. India is second in fruit and vegetable production at global level. The percentage share of horticulture output in agriculture has become 33%, (Horti statistics, 2018). However, productivity in most of the horticulture commodities is very low below world productivity, as we have not concentrated intensively on some major aspects to achieve competitiveness in horticulture for expansion in international trade.

India has potential to lead the world in horticulture. Horticulture is mostly concerned in different aspects of human beings such as provision of nutritious food to achieve a balanced diet; rural employment, integral part of rainfed and dry land areas, wealth generation through the activities of production, processing, marketing, servicing, and related sectors, economically important in export related activities and associated with all the elements of the supply chain etc. 

Introduction
Chamomile is generally known as German or Hungarian chamomile. Its herb is commonly used for both medicinal as well as aromatic purposes. It was introduced in India during late fifties by Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu (Handa et. al., 1957) and subsequently in different parts of India. It was successfully grown over saline soils at CIMAP, Lucknow and later at several other locations. It was also introduced at YSPUH&F at Solan (H.P.) under AICRP on M&APs and several parameters were identified for better utilization of inputs for higher production of herb. Its flowers also contain an essential oil with multiple uses.
Origin
It is native to Europe and mainly cultivated in the regions of northern, central and eastern European countries, Mediterranean, N. Africa, United States, Germany, France, Hungary and Russia. It is found grown in wild state in
eastern and southern Europe, West Asia and North Africa.

The volatile oil in the flower determines the odour and flavour of kewda and it has been of particular fascination to the chemists. There are only a few reports on the chemical composition of kewda essential oil (rooh or otto) Dhingra et al. (1954) distilled the kewda flowers collected from five places of Ganjam (Odisha) and Ghazipur (Uttar Pradesh) districts. He found the oil yield to vary from 0.015 to 0.031% and the compounds identified were methyl ether of β- phenyl ethyl alcohol (65.97%), d-linalool (18.70%), dipentene (8.31%), phenyl ethyl acetate (3.48%) and citral (1.82%). The oil was of light to golden yellow in colour having the following physico-chemical properties viz., specific gravity (d20o) 0.932-0.958; refractive index (n20o) 1.485-1.491; optical rotation ([α]D) + 1.350 to + 2.080; acid value 1.4 – 6.7; ester value 15.9 – 40.9 and soluble in equal volume of 80 % alcohol (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Sadgopal (1959) also reported the major constituent of oil as methyl ether of β-phenyl ethyl alcohol (65 – 80%) and minor constituents as dipentene, α-linalool, phenyl ethyl alcohol, citral and some terpene esters.

According to Chandra (1985), the oil contained dipentene (6.0%), d -linalool (19.0%), phenyl ethyl acetate (4.6%), citral (1.8%), caproic acid (0.5%) and stearoptene (0.2%) besides the major constituent methyl ether of β-phenyl ethyl alcohol (67.0%).

Very little is known about the basic principles governing the chemistry of flavour or fragrance. In English, the term aroma chemicals is used for both fragrance and flavour compounds. Any compound with a sufficiently high vapour pressure will have an odour and this is normally of the molecular weight of around 300, a relatively low polarity granted (Frater et al., 1998). Generally only compounds with pleasant smell are considered to fall under the realm of fragrance chemistry, but purified individual components from a mixture may have a malodour. Almost all ancient civilizations had their tradition of making fragrances from natural materials, mostly of plant origin, but also of animal origin – these are mostly essential oils, exudates, balsam and resins (Arctander, 1969).
 
It was in the latter half of the 19th century that synthetic fragrance chemicals were experimented upon and brought into the market, examples being coumarin (Fig. 1) (in the year 1866), salicylaldehyde (Fig. 2) (1876), vanillin (Fig. 3) (1876), phenylacetaldehyde (Fig. 4) (1883), piperonal (Fig. 5) (1890), musk xylol (Fig. 6) (1891) and b-ionone (Fig. 8) (1893) (Frater et al., 1998).

7.1 What is Chemotaxonomy?
The approach of taxonomy in which chemical features of plants are used in developing classifications or in solving taxonomic problems is called chemotaxonomy, chemosystematics, chemical taxonomy, chemical plant taxonomy or plant chemotaxonomy. Some of the basic chemical features or evidentiary characters include alkaloids, flavonoids, carotenoids, polysaccharides, terpenoids, fatty acids, amino acids, aromatic compounds, etc.
The chemical evidences are useful in establishing relationships among taxa is exemplified (Cronquist, 1980) by the (i) Presence of aromatic plants in Juglandales, (ii) Production of betalains and not anthocyanins by the members of caryophyllales, (iii) Presence of highly aromatic compounds in the members of Lamiaceae, (iv) Presence of alkaloids in Solanaceae, and (v) Presence of tanniferous plants in Sapindaceae.
7.2 Purpose of Chemotaxonomy
Chemotaxonomy has been used at all levels of the hierarchy of classification starting from the rank of ‘variety’ up to the rank of ‘division’ in plants. Moreover, chemical evidences have been used in all the groups of the plant kingdom starting from simple organisms, such as fungi and bacteria, up to the most highly advanced and specialized groups of angiosperms. These evidences are used in the classification of plants with two main purposes, (i) To develop such taxonomic characters which may improve the existing systems of plant classification and (ii) To develop the present day knowledge of phylogeny or evolutionary relationships of plants.

1. Introduction

Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) is a major vegetable and spice crop due to its high consumption, nutritional and cash value to farmers and consumers. It is cultivated almost in whole world as consume in the form of green and red ripe fruits. China is the world leader in chilli production followed by India, Mexico, Morocco, Pakistan, Thailand, and Turkey. India is the second largest exporter in the world of dry chilli and its powder. Fruits of chilli are used as fresh salad, cooked vegetable, pickles, souces hot spices in powder form (Parey et al., 2013) and having many medicinal values (Nadkarni, 1927). Fresh green fruits of peppers and red peppers are the major source of vitamin A, C and antioxidant compounds, besides these also found minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, iron, manganese, sodium, zinc and copper. 

Capsicum species are members of family Solanaceae, which include tomato, potato, tobacco and petunia.  Pepper, chile, chili, aji, paprika and capsicum are used interchangeably for plants in the genus Capsicum.  The word Capsicum is reserved for taxonomic discussion (Bosland, 1992). The indigenous people of Americas evolved pepper through breeding and domestication of Capsicum species. Global diversification was facilitated by age of exploration, and subsequent establishment of land races and farmers selections.  Classical genetic and cytogenetic exploitation of Capsicum species began in 1940s and continued throughout the century (Poulos, 1994). Data on crossability and hybrid sterility are developed to reinforce or revise views on the rank of morphologically distinguishable taxa, while studies on chromosomes and isozymes aided in understanding the relationships between domesticated and wild species and the course of evolution within the domesticated species.

China aster (Callistephus chinensis) belonging to family Asteracea is a native of China. It is a half hardy annual, erect plant, hispid hairy branches bearing alternate, broadly ovate or triangular ovate, deeply and irregularly toothed leaves. Flowers are solitary, usually blue, lavender rose or white coloured. China aster is one of the most important among garden annuals grown throughout the world. Among annual flowers China aster ranks third next to chrysanthemum and marigold. It is grown by small and marginal farmers in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra. Due to its long vase life, China aster is a popular cut flower used in vases and for floral decoration and also for making garlands and venis in Karnataka. Asters are popular as bedding plants and used to fill gap in mixed herbaceous borders. Dwarf cultivars are also suitable for edging and window boxes.

China aster (Callistephus chinensis L. Nees) belongs to family Asteraceae. It is a half hardy and branching annual. Its generic name Callistephus is derived from two Greek words “kalistos” meaning beautiful and “stephos” meaning a crown alluding the large colourful flower heads. Plant is erect having hispid-hairy branches (Bailey, 1963). It is propagated through seed. It is cultivated as cut flower both in the field and under protected condition in temperate countries (Post, 1956 and Warren Auman, 1980). Whereas, in India it is widely grown in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharastra for cut as well as loose flower production (Janakiram et al., 2001).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

China aster is originated from China. Several literatures also stated that China aster is native to China and Japan (Anon., 1950, Bailey, 1963 and Cockshull, 1985). The evolution of China aster has remarkable variations. The present day aster has been developed from single form of wild species, C. chinensis, a plant native to China. The plant was introduced in Europe in 1731 by Jesuit Missionary R.P. d Incarville.

The original plant had single flowers with two or four rows of blue, violet or white ray florets. The first change in the flower type had been the prolongation or development of central florets which lead to quilled flowers. Much original work to improve the plant was done by French. Later the British followed suit with breeding programmes. Most of the recent improvements are the work of American breeders. French florists contributed much in development of double forms. German scientists also evolved many doubled cultivars. These asters were known as German asters because the first great advances in the evolution of the plant were made in Germany and the seeds then used came largely from that country. The comet types introduced in 1886 or 1887 subsequently replaced the quilled types. With the introduction of new branching types by James Vick in 1893, the USA became the main centre of development of this plant as well as for the production of seeds. Since its introduction into Europe, it is grown in almost all the countries of the globe as a garden annual. A good amount of work on China aster on improvement and growing practices has been done in India (Singh, 2006).

INTRODUCTION

China aster is one of the most popular annual flowering plant grown throughout the world. Among annuals it ranks next to chrysanthemum and marigold and is grown mainly by marginal and small farmers. It can easily be grown in the open fields and lath houses for the roduction of cut flowers Cut asters last long and are used in vases and floral decoration. When asters are grown in large mass, they make very showy bedding plants and are valuable for filling up the gap in mixed herbaceous border. The dwarf types are put in front and the taller behind.

Some strains are used as pot plants, while dwarf cultivars are suitable for edging and window boxes. The prominent colours of flowers are blue, violet, lavender, rose, white, etc. In tropical and subtropical countries aster is extensively grown for bedding and cut blooms during winter month and spring. China aster is one of the most important traditional flowers in India and has maximum use for traditional purposes. The commercial importance of China aster is increasing in India especially in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra.

Abstract: The most popular ornamental monotypic species chinensis, is an important annual flower, used commercially as cut flower for interior decoration, bedding, potting and landscape purpose. Currently, there are many interspecific hybrid cultivars from this species on the market. The influence of breeding methods on the selection criterion and selection procedures is discussed. Information on variability and correlation is included. Ample genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include plant architecture, flowering (colour, size, timings), attractive flower heads, extended bloom time, horizontal placement of flowers, floral longevity, earliness, healthy foliage or other morphological traits. Future crop ideotypes are proposed to continue transformation of this crop for large scale cultivation.

Introduction

China aster is one of the most popular annual flowering plant grown throughout the world. Among annuals it ranks next to chrysanthemum and marigold. It can easily be grown in the open fields for cut and loose flowers. Cut asters last long and are used in vases and floral decoration. When asters are grown in large mass, they make very showy bedding plants and are valuable for filling up the gap in mixed herbaceous border. The dwarf types are put in front and the taller behind.

Some varieties are used as pot plants. The prominent colours of flowers are blue, violet, lavender, rose, white, etc. The commercial importance of China aster is increasing in India especially in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra.

Genetics

China aster (Callistephus chinensis L. Nees) belongs to family Asteraceae. The genus Callistephus has only a single species i.e. C. chinensis. The ploidy level is diploid (2n = 18).

China aster (Callistephus chinensis) is a half-hardy annual belonging to the family Asteraceae and is valued for its attractive flowers in various colours and forms. It is an important ornamental and loose flower crop, particularly suitable for garlands and floral decoration. The chapter introduces its origin, genetics, botanical characteristics and important cultivars developed by Indian research institutions. It discusses climate and soil requirements, propagation, nursery management, field preparation, planting and nutrient management. Irrigation and other cultural practices are presented along with major insect pests and diseases such as grey mould and rust. Harvesting, postharvest handling and yield considerations complete the production package

Chironji or Charoli (Buchanania lanzan Spreng Family: Anacardiaceae) is an excellent tree of agro forestry and social forestry. In wasteland development and Dryland horticulture, it assumes great significance due to multifarious uses and capacity to withstand adverse climatic conditions. At present, it is growing under forest condition as an under exploited fruit and gives monitory reward to tribal community of country and seems to be a boon for them. It is a valuable species found in dry deciduous forest throughout the country excluding eastern Himalayan forests (Singh, 1982). Flesh of ripe fruit is very palatable and is largely eaten raw or roasted and oily kernels are the most important part and are used in preparation of sweet meats and puddings (Singh, 1982). Mesocarp of fruit is edible and cherished by children (Munde et al, 2003). Kernel is highly nutritious and rich in protein (18.00 %) and yields sweet oil, which can be used to substitute olive and almond oil. Kernel contains 33.50 % oil, 1.90 % of which is unsaponifiable. Saponifiable part contained 20.00 % of linoleic acid. Chironji oil is non-repellant and non-toxic and is suitable for human consumption (Banerjee and Jain, 1988). Hemawathy and Prabhakar (1988) reported that total kernel lipid extracted from chironji was 65.60 % of dry kernel and consisted of 90.40 % neutral lipids, 3.4 % glycolipids and 6.2 % phospholipids. Kernel can be used for preparation of sweets. It provides quality timber wood for various uses.

Chow-Chow [Sechium edule (Jacq.) Swartz] is used in many parts of Latin America, humid tropical regions of Central America and Southern Mexico. It is cultivated in South East Asia (India, Malaysia, Indonesia and Phillipines), Central and Western Africa, Central and South America (Brazil) and other tropical regions. (Dutta 1994). In India, local cultivars are commonly grown in coastal and low-hills (1000-2000m) of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamilnadu. In Tamil, it is called “Seeme Kattrikkai” (Bailey, 1947). It is an important part of dietary system of tribals of  North East Regions. It is found in kitchen gardens of every tribal. It is found in almost all states and regions but maximum variability is found in Sikkim, Mizoram and Meghalaya (Yadav et al., 2005). Its variable fruits and roots, are important elements in diet of people. Chow-Chow is widespread and is an important export crop for  Latin American countries, much still need to be learned  about this crop (Rafael Lira Saade,1996). Chow-Chow is a single seeded fruit of  Cucurbitaceous family (MacGillivray, 1953). It is a perennial rooted vine that bears edible fruits (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). In subtropical and tropical regions, it produces large edible tuberous roots. It thrives under moderate temperature in  tropical or semi-tropical environment, though it can also be successfully grown under high temperature near sea level. Chow-Chow is a herbaceous perennial creeper (Choudhury, 1967) and is a robust grower in warmer months of year and during  cold weather of July and August  plant dies back temporarily. It has a viviparous type of germination (Patnaik, 1967). S.edule is called chayote, probably from  Greek ‘Sekos’ to  fatten in a fold because it was fed to hogs ( Bailey, 1963).

1. Introduction

Chrysanthemum is commonly known as ‘Guldaoudi’, “Queen of the East”, “Glory of East” or “Autumn Queen”. It is one of the most beautiful and widely cultivated flowers that can be grown for its aesthetic value as well as for its commercial potential. The word chrysanthemum is derived from two Greek words, viz. “Chrysos” means gold and “Anthemon” means ‘flower’ i.e. golden flower. Chrysanthemum is the only crop that offers a great genetic diversity of flower colour, shape, forms, size, easy to propagate, growing habit, longer flowering duration and excellent vase life. Based on the shape of flower heads and floret arrangement of petals it can be used as pot plants for indoors and outdoors decoration as well as exhibition purpose; as cut flowers for flower arrangements, bouquets making and vase decoration; loose flower for making garlands, worshipping purpose and for bedding and garden decoration. Tall cultivars are suitable for background planting in borders and the dwarf and compact can be planted in front rows. 

Chrysanthemum (chrysos =golden; anthos = flower) is a popular flower crop of commercial importance known as the “Queen of the East”. It ranks next only to rose among flower crops in the world.

Chrysanthemum (Dendranthema spp.) belongs to family Compositae (Asteraceae). It was named by Carolus Linnaeus from the Greek prefix “chrys” means golden and “anthemon” means flower. Chrysanthemum morifolium is the modern florists chrysanthemum, which evolved as a result of endless variation and hybridization from C. sinensis, C. indicum and C. ornatum (Bailey, 1963). This group is also distinguished as C. hortorum. The name of C. morifolium Ramat has been changed to Dendranthema grandiflora Tzvelev (Anderson, 1987, Heywood and Humphries, 1977). Chrysanthemums are mainly herbaceous perennial and bear flowers in capitula. Chrysanthemum perennates in nature by means of stolons and is readily propagated through basal stem cuttings. It ranks second next to roses in importance among the cut flower crops in the world.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Chrysanthemum is originated in northern hemisphere (Europe and Asia). However, some workers reported that China is the native place of chrysanthemum (Carter, 1980). Most of the species in the lineage of present day cultivars are from China.

Chrysanthemum was first cultivated in China as a flowering herb and is described in writing as early as 15^th century B.C. As herb, it was believed to have the power of life. In 18^th century, they appeared in Japan as the crest and official seal of the Emperor. Japan also has a national chrysanthemum day, which is called the Festival of Happiness. In the western world, they are introduced in England, Japan, France and U.S. have developed a wide range of colours, shapes and sizes of flowers. Since the chrysanthemum was first introduced in the U.S. during colonial times, its popularity has grown such that mums now reign as undisputed ‘Queen of the Fall Flowers’. The Netherlands is the foremost importer of chrysanthemum cut flowers and is the centers for re-export to other parts of the world. In India, chrysanthemum is successfully grown under protected as well as open conditions in different states.

INTRODUCTION

The chrysanthemum is one of the most beautiful and perhaps the oldest flowering plant, commercially grown in different parts of the world. It is commonly known as Queen of East, Autumn Queen and Guldaudi. It is im ortant both as cut flower and as potted plant in the international market. In Dutch cut flower auction, chrysanthemum ranks second after rose. It is preferred practically due to vast range of shapes and sizes of flowers, brilliance of colour tones, long lasting floret life, diversity of height and growth habit of the plant, exceptionally hardy nature, relative ease to grow all the year round and versatility of use.

It is one of the most important traditional flowers of India mainly used as a potted plant, loose flower, cut flower and as border plant in the garden. Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium inflorescences are of considerable importance in the manufacture of pyrethrin insecticides. The leaves of Chrysanthemum balsamita become leathery on drying and can be used as bookmarks. Fresh young customary leaves can be used in salads and to add a balsam flavour in beer, soups and bread. Now programmed blooming of chrysanthemum all the year around is possible by environmental manipulations.

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) is a popular flowering plant grown for its magnificent flowers in wide range of colour. There are various size of flowers like mini, small and large. Forms of the flowers also vary from ball shape to spider type. In ornamental gardening, Chrysanthemum is used as bedding as well as pot plant. Cut-flowers are also very popular for vase decoration and commercially important. Flowers of the small-flowered cultivars are also used as loose flowers for making garland and floral ornaments.

Classification

There is huge diversity in the form and types of Chrysanthemum. Therefore, one has to know the various types of flowers, growth habit and their use in the gardens.

Abstract: Chrysanthemum, commonly known as Queen of East, is perhaps oldest flowering plant, commercially grown in different parts of the world in a wide range of floricultural product including potted plants, cut flowers and garden plant. Vast range of shapes and sizes of flowers, brilliance of colour tones, long lasting bloom, ease of production and cultivation all the year round, range of plant habits from pot mums to tall shrub, hardy nature, and versatility of use make this a versatile floriculture crop, wide range of polyploidy level (diploid to decaploid) is found in different cultivars and are almost exclusively asexually propagated. The crop arises from multiple species, its allopolyploid nature has complicated progress in crop development due to inbreeding depression, genetic load and aneuploidy. Precise genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop; plant breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. Currently, numerous varieties have been developed through complex interspecific crosses among elemental species, open pollination, indiscriminate Intervarietal hybridization, spontaneous and induced mutation, selection, and management of chimera. Number of traits targeted for genetic intervention have been presented and discussed. Crop idiotypes for product classes prescribe numerous traits for incorpotion by flower breeders and geneticists including compact framework to withstand bloom for pot mums, long lasting bloom colour with enhanced shelf life for cut flower and sweet scented blooms with extended blooming season for garland use.

Introduction

The chrysanthemum is one of the most beautiful and perhaps the oldest flowering plant. It is commercially grown in different parts of the world. Chrysanthemum is commonly known as Guldaudi. In Dutch cut flower auction, chrysanthemum ranks second after rose. It is preferred practically due to vast range of shapes and sizes of flowers, brilliance of colour tones, long lasting floret life, diversity of height and growth habit of the plant, exceptionally hardy nature, relative ease to grow all the year round and versatility of use.

It is one of the most important traditional flowers of India mainly used as a potted plant, loose flower, cut flower and as border plant in the garden. Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium inflorescences are of considerable importance in the manufacture of pyrethrin insecticides.

Chrysanthemum takes its name derived from the Greek word chryos meaning gold and anthos meaning a flower, as many species have yellow flower heads. The genus Chrysanthemum belongs to family Asteraceae. It is herbaceous perennial plant. The genus comprises some 200 species of annuals, perennials and shrubs from northern temperate zone (chiefly Europe and Asia), whereas some researchers claim it was originated only from China. Though botanists have retained only the annual species under the genus Chrysanthemum (Beckett, 1983; Dole and Wilkins, 1999).

Annual chrysanthemums which are propagated through seeds. Annual chrysanthemum comprise ofthree species viz, Chrysanthemum segtum (corn marigold), Chrysanthemum carinatum (tricoloured chrysanthemum) and Chrysanthemum coronarium (crown daisy or garland chrysanthemum). The crown daisy or garland chrysanthemum (C. coronarium) is a native from Southern Europe, branching annual with finely cut foliage reaching a height up to a metre, size of flowers varies from 2.5 to 4 cm and colour is usually in shades of yellow and white with cream zone at the center (Vishnu Swarup, 1967).

Importance and Uses

Chrysanthemum is the number one dollar earning flower in the United States and cultivars suitable for growing throughout the year have been evolved there. The members of National Chrysanthemum Society run into thousands in several countries. It ranks second (next to rose) in the international cut flower trade. In India, it occupies a place of pride both as a commercial flower, garden plant, pot plant and as a popular exhibition flower.

Large number of chrysanthemum cultivars which exhibit wide variation for characters like growth habit, size, colour and shape of blooms makes chrysanthemum suitable for varied purpose. Its erect and tall growing cultivars are suitable for background planting in borders and as cut- flowers. The dwarf and compact growing ones are suitable for front row planting or pot culture. The decorative and fluffy bloomed small flowered cultivars are ideal for preparation of garland and hair decoration. The extra large- bloomed cultivars are prized for their exhibition value. Certain species like Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium and Chrysanthemum coccineum are cultivated as sources of pyrethrum, a natural insecticide.

Chrysanthemum is one of the important commercial loose flower crops in India, valued for its wide range of flower forms, colours, sizes and long-lasting florets. It is extensively used for religious offerings, garlands, Veni, bouquets and ornamental purposes. The chapter describes its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and important annual and perennial types. It provides information on suitable varieties, climate, soil, propagation and field establishment. Production practices including nutrient management, irrigation, pinching and other cultural operations are explained systematically. The chapter also discusses important pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest management and yield, providing a practical foundation for commercial chrysanthemum cultivation and floriculture teaching.