eChapters

Barleria, particularly Barleria cristata, is a perennial evergreen flowering shrub valued for attractive blooms, garlands, religious functions and ornamental landscaping. The crop has considerable commercial importance in southern India, while other species are used in ornamental and medicinal applications. This chapter covers the origin, distribution, genetics, botanical description and important species and varieties of Barleria. It explains suitable climate and soil conditions, propagation through seeds and stem cuttings, land preparation, nutrient management, planting and irrigation. Cultural practices such as weeding, mulching, pruning and pinching are described along with pest and disease management. Harvesting, postharvest handling and yield are also addressed.

Basella (Basella alba syn Basella rubra) is also known as Poi, Ceylon spinach, Malabar spinach, Indian spinach or vine spinach. It is a popular leaf vegetable grown in almost all parts of India and widely grown in North-East and South India. Besides India, it is widely cultivated in tropical Asia and Africa. It is a climbing perennial plant, but is sometimes cultivated as an annual vegetable. The plant is succulent with tender leaves. It is a fast growing, productive leaf vegetable for home gardens and market growers. 

Composition
Young shoots and leaves of Basella are a rich source of calcium, iron, and Vitamins A and C.

Uses
Fresh tender leaves and stems are consumed as leaf vegetable after cooking. It is preferable to cook the leaves in soups and stews as half of soluble solids may be lost by boiling in water. Red cultivars contain a colouring matter in leaves, stems and ripe fruits reported as a dye for colouring food. Because of its mucilaginous nature of leaves and stems, it is used as poultice. Juice of leaves is prescribed against constipation, especially for children and pregnant women (Burkill, 1935).

Landform, water and plants form the three basic elements of garden designing. Each of these basic element is described and discussed in detail.

I Landform

“Landform” refers to three-dimensional relief of earth’s surface. Thus, in simple words it is the lay of land, synonymous with, “topography”. Land is defined as the surface of the earth and all its natural resources. Landform is thus 3-D view of earth’s surface including all the visible feature of an area of land and landscape refers to the picture representing a view of natural inland scenery. Landform is the common module in exterior environments, a base, an axis, a thread, which ties all the physical elements, space together along the horizon or the water edge. Landforms can be classified as macro-landforms, micro-landforms and mini-landforms. Macro-landforms refers to valleys, mountains, rolling hills, prairies, desert, seashore and plains. Micro-landforms refers to mounds, slopes, level areas or elevation changes using steps and ramps. Mini-landforms refers to subtle, undulations or ripples of a sand dunes or the textural variation of stones and rocks.

Different techniques are used for explaining and representing the type of landform. These include (i) Contour lines, (ii) Models, (iii) Ratio method, (iv) Value and colour, (v) Spot elevation, (vi) Computer graphics, (vi) Hatches (disconnected lines are used) and (viii) Percentage method. These techniques are used for proper study of the landform, to identify loopholes and need to modification in order to establish proper drainage or to modify the site in order to accommodate of various elements or to create an aesthetically pleasing ground plan.

Gardens have been considered important, sacred from ancient time and the styles developed being inspired form its surroundings. Thus the influences of climate, general landform, religion, spiritual vision, culture, nation, prevailing political conditions, social factors, architectural styles, etc have influenced in developing specific garden style in a particular region. These styles developed slowly over hundreds of years and remained insulated and remained intact till the travelling approach between different countries got well established. Later as the mobility between different countries became widespread, these style forms became intermingled and refined even to new forms. This resulted into the development of Japanese garden style or the arts of ‘bonsai’ making which had its origin in China, or the creation of west coast American garden that originated from the Bauhaus and modern movement that stated life in Germany, the mughal garden style in India based on Persian style from Iran etc.

Basically, the different garden styles can be classified into formal, informal, intermediate and wild garden styles. Aristotle, the father of mathematics and Pythagorus, the father of geometry and disciple of Aristotle, strongly influenced the geometry, mathematics and calculative features of formal garden style. While informal garden style have evolved from the eastern vision of thoughts, originated with Laotsu and Confucious contemplation (preaching) that manifested gardens to express peaceful and compassionate atmosphere influencing meditation, silence and internal harmony.

Landscaping combines elements of art and science to create a functional, aesthetically pleasing extension of indoor living to the outdoors. One initial purpose of landscape design is to blend mans’ technology (house or building) into the natural surroundings. To work towards a desirable landscape design, the landscape horticulturist must have a working knowledge of art elements and design principles.

The “art” is always changing as the plants grow, environmental conditions change and people use the space. For this reason, landscape designers use a design process that systematically considers all aspects of the land, the environment, the growing plants, and needs of user to ensure a visually pleasing, functional, and ecologically healthy design. The design process begins by determining the needs and desires of the user and the conditions of the site. With this information, the designer then organizes the plants and hardscape materials, which are collectively referred to as the features. The features can be physically described by the visual qualities of line, form, color, texture and visual weight—the elements of design. The principles are the fundamental concepts of composition—proportion, order, repetition and unity—that serve as guidelines to arrange or organize the features to create an aesthetically pleasing or beautiful landscape. Knowledge of the elements and principles of design are essential to designing a landscape and working through the design process.

India is a vast country with varied soil and agro-climatic conditions and therefore is able to grow a wide range of vegetables. In view of their productivity, diversification, nutrition, value addition and export, vegetables are an important component in Indian agriculture. Up to 1939, vegetable seeds were used to be imported from Australia, U.K., U.S.A., but after World War I and II, India started seed production of vegetables. In the recent past, the seed industry has made rapid strides over the past three decades and has contributed significantly to the quantum jump in agricultural production and India emerged as the second largest producer of vegetables, next to China in the world. During 2005-2006, India produced 113.5 million t of vegetables from 7.2 million ha with a productivity of 15.76 t/ha. The seed industry has increased certified and quality seed production and distribution by the organized sector to about 60 lakh quintal from 300q in 1964-65. India can be proud of having launched and managed both crop improvement and seed improvement as simultaneous and parallel programmes playing complimentary and synergistic roles.

Landscape Gardening

Landscape gardening is an aesthetic branch of Horticulture which deals with planting of ornamental plants in such a way that it creates a picturesque effect. According to Chambers’ dictionary, the definition of landscape is the appearance of that portion of land which the eye can view at once and landscape gardening is the art of laying grounds so as to produce the effect of a picturesque landscape. Landscape gardening can be defined as the decoration of a tract of land with plants and other garden materials so as to produce a picturesque and naturalistic effect in a limited space. According to Bailey, Landscape gardening is the application of garden forms, methods and materials to the improvements of the landscape and the landscape in this connection is any area large or small on which it is desirable to develop a view or design. So landscape may or may not include plants.

Landscape gardening can also be defined as the beautification of a tract of land having a house or other object of interest on it. It is done with a view to create a natural scene by the planting of lawn, trees and shrubs. Landscape gardening is both an art and science of the establishment of a ground in such a way that it gives an effect of a natural landscape. It can be also defined as the imitation of nature in the garden. It can also be defined as improving of total living environment for the people. In light of all the foregoing definition landscape gardening can be defined more appropriately as art of creating gardens, parks and other green areas.

Landscape design seeks to create balance between living and natural environments in order to derive the greatest use and enjoyment from outdoor space. A landscape to a landscape designer is like a slab of marble to a sculptor or the insides of a home to an interior decorator; a landscape is the canvass on which the landscape designer crafts his or her masterpiece. Since the landscape gardening is the making pictures on the ground with plant and other material, landscape designer should be proficient in art, ornamental gardening, ecology and physiology. He should be an architect and engineer to appreciate the relationship between plant form, colours and buildings.

Bearing

Bearing is connotation of flowering and fruiting. When a fruit tree flowers and fruits, it is said in bearing condition. Different fruits have different bearing habits, inflorescences, types of flower, mode and medium of pollination, pollen viability and all these account a lot for the bearing of fruit plants.

Bearing habit

If one observes a mango tree, he/she may find it does produce the fruits terminally on a shoot and it citrus he/she finds the fruits always produced laterally in the leaf axils. The manner or patter in which a plant produces its fruit is known as bearing habit or fruiting habit. Bearing habits are specific to the kind of plant. In determining the bearing habit of any plant three points are to be considered.

17.1 INTRODUCTION

Bearing habit indicates position of f lower bud with respect to vegetative growth of the plant after cessation of juvenility. Different fruit trees have different bearing habits. The knowledge of bearing habits will be of much importance for regulating the bearing of any plant by means of pruning. Terminal bearers are not normally pruned, whereas in case of lateral bearers pruning certainly increase the bearing, as it encourages the sprouting of lateral buds. Fruit trees may bear the fruits either terminally on a long or short growth, laterally on present or past season growth or adventitiously from any point on the trunk or root. The relative position of a fruit with reference to its potential bud giving rise to f lower or inf lorescence in the shoot is known as bearing habit. Knowledge on the bearing habit is a pre-requirement before performing pruning in any fruit crop (particularly in ber, guava, grape etc.). Proper understanding of bearing habits helps a lot in manipulating time and period of f lowering and fruiting which consequently inf luence harvesting and yield of better-quality fruits.

In general, plants show two distinctive phases; i.e. vegetative growth and reproductive growth. The primary objective of plant species is to reproduce themselves through the reproductive phase. However, some of the plant species do not produce viable seeds, but reproduce themselves in nature by other means. Flowering and fruiting habits vary with plant species and are governed by the kind of plant species and its growth habit, environment etc. In general, flowering and fruiting habits are known as bearing habits and it can be described by the location and type of buds, which produce flowers and fruit. The relative position of fruit with reference to its potential bud-giving rise to flower or inflorescence on the shoot is known as bearing habit. Each plant has its own bearing habit and are either terminally, laterally or adventiously Terminally means the fruit buds are formed on long or short growth, while laterally means the fruit buds are formed in the axils of present or past season’s growth. Adventiously, the fruit buds are formed at any point on the trunk. On the basis of bearing habits, fruit crops are categorised into the following eight groups

Begonia is a perennial flowering plant belongs to family Begoniaceae. Begonia has rich colour and beautiful form of flowers. It is free flowering and striking foliage with free growth. The name Begonia is given by Franciscan monk Charles Plumier a plant which he found during his journey from Haiti to island Martinique. He dedicated this plant to “Michel Begon” the man who had the direct manmade over the expeditions. Begonia is easy to propagate and grown from seeds and vegetative means particularly cuttings. It is a popular flowering potted plant grown in containers and hanging baskets including tuberous, semperflorens, Rex, Elatior, Loraine and gracilis. Modern commercially cultivated begonias are mostly hybrids between wild types from all over the world.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Begonias are native to South America and second centre of diversity is Asia from Himalayas to Southern China and Malaysia (a floristic region that encompasses Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunes, Philippines and Paera New Guinea).

The distribution of Begonia diversity is uneven throughout tropical regions, with the greatest diversity in America and Asia (>600 species each), whilst being relatively species poor in Africa (160 species) and absent in Australia (Goodall-Copestake et al., 2010). The genus is thought to have originated in Africa, while South American and South East Asian species are the results of parallel radiations over the last 20-50 million years (Plana et al., 2004, Goodall Copestake et al., 2010 and Thomas et al., 2011). Long distance dispersal is rare, for example Begonia species have failed to cross the Torres Strait from Papua New Guinea to Australia.

Begonia is a perennial flowering plant belongs to family Begoniaceae. Begonia has rich colour and beautiful form of flowers. It is free flowering and striking foliage with free growth. The name Begonia is given by Franciscan monk Charles Plumier a plant which he found during his journey from Haiti to island Martinique. He dedicated this plant to “Michel Begon” the man who had the direct manmade over the expeditions. Begonia is easy to propagate and grown from seeds and vegetative means particularly cuttings. It is a popular flowering potted plant grown in containers and hanging baskets including tuberous, semperflorens, Rex, Elatior, Loraine and gracilis. Modern commercially cultivated begonias are mostly hybrids between wild types from all over the world.

Ber (Chinese date, Chinese fig or bore) (Ziziphus xylopyrus) is an important minor fruit of India. It is a hardy fruit tree cultivated all over India and also known as poor man’s fruit. It is widely cultivated in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Ber does well even under marginal growing conditions and provides quality yields at low cost (Shukla, 1996). Fruits are eaten fresh but the other forms like dried, candied and squash can also be prepared from ber. Stem bark, root and leaves have medicinal values. Leaves of ber are used as fodder in dry regions. Ber tree is a host plant for rearing the Tachardia laccad, a lac insect (Sharma and Kore, 1990).

Represented by about 120 genera and over 800 species. Bignoniaceae are distributed mainly in tropical and sub-tropical, and a few in temperate regions. About 15 genera and 40 species are found in India. Some of the larger genera along with their approximate number of worldover reported species are Tabebuia (100), Arraabidaea (70), Jacaranda (50), Anemopaegma (30), Tecoma (16), Catalpa (11) and Crescentia (5).
Selected Indian Genera
Jacaranda, Kigelia, Millingtonia, Tecoma, Heterophragma, Oroxylum and Dolichandrone. Economic Importance
1. Ornamental plants of the family include handsome trees (Catalpa bignonioides, Haplophragma adenophyllum, Jacaranda mimosaefolia, (Fig. 26.1), Kigelia pinnata, Millingtonia hortensis, Spathodea campanulata and Tabebuia spectabilis), shrubs (Bignonia unguis-cati), beautiful tendril-climbers (Adenocalymna alliaceum, Bignonia venusta syn. Pyrostegia venusta), aerial rootlet climbers (Campis grandiflora and C. radicans) and herbaceous genus Incarvillea.

Plants are important to humankind not only economically, environmentally and industrially but also spiritually, historically and aesthetically, they sustain human life through direct and indirect gains by providing a wide range of products for survival and prosperity. Bio-aesthetic planning to a large extent is a product of the age. With the advancement in agriculture and increase in population, large settlements developed, marking the beginning of urbanization. More and more people moved to urban areas for comfortable life. Increasing human needs resulted in large-scale exploitation of natural resources, great reduction in forest cover and extinction of many species of flora and fauna. The extent of forest cover is a good indication of the health of the land. The large scale deforestation in recent decades has rendered the sensitive catchment areas and hilly areas particularly vulnerable to soil erosion. Professor Lancelot Hogben coined the term ‘Bio-aesthetic planning’ defined as planning of flora and fauna with the object of beautifying the piece of land (country). Bio-aesthetic planning is an aesthetic branch of Horticulture which deals with planting of ornamental plants in such a way that it creates a picturesque effect. It is a very fascinating and interesting subject. With the greater realization of environmental, ecological and socio- economic benefits of plants, scope of Bio-aesthetic planning has increased further. Bio-aesthetic planning can play important role in environmental amelioration of urban and industrial areas along with their beautification.

8.1 Introduction

One important aspect of bio-aesthetic planning is to landscape public places on a priority basis compared to private places. For this specific reason, the railway station and the railway lines should attract attention at the very outset for landscape gardening.

8.2 Definition

Bio-aesthetic planning means the proper utilization of the available flora and fauna in the beautification of the surroundings. The concept of bio-aesthetic planning is given by concept of Prof. Lancelot Hogben.

In India, the theme of bio-aesthetic planning was propagated by Dr. M. S. Randhawa. Le Corbusier and his associates, Pierre Jeanneret, E. Maxwell Fry and Jane B. Drew had planned Chandigarh city as per the principles of bioaesthetic planning.

Definition: Bio-aesthetic planning is recognized as the aesthetic branch of horticulture which deals with planting of ornamental plants to create a picturesque effect.

The term bio-aesthetic planning was coined by Lancelot Hogben. Egyptians were the first to adopt this type of planning in their cities. In India, M.S. Randhava was the flag bearer of bio-aesthetic planning.

India is one of the twelve mega-biodiversity countries of the world with 46,000 plant species and 81,000 animal species described so far from 70% of the total geographical area surveyed so far. Bio-aesthetic planned city in South India is Bengaluru and in North India is Chandigarh (Punjab and Haryana).

Scope: Benefits like environmental, ecological and socio-economic realizes a greater scope of bio-aesthetic planning. Potential of plants in combating pollution has not been utilized effectively so far. In bio-aesthetics, efforts should be concentrated to maintain for the next millennium, natural landscapes which appear healthy, harmonious, diverse and unique. Thus, bio-aesthetic planning can play an important role in environmental amelioration of urban and industrial areas along with their beautification.

Concept: Man has aesthetic sense and makes efforts to create orderliness and beauty. Natural forms, colours and textures have inspired most of the human art. Fulfilling recreational needs through ornamental plants and wild animals brings the idea of bio-aesthetic planning.

Introduction

Agriculture sector plays an important role in economy of India and contributes 18% to the GDP. It ensuring food security for more than1.26 billion Indian populations with diminishing cultivable land resource is a herculean task. Pesticides have been the most effective weapons and play vital role in crop protection against agricultural insect-pests. The green revolution technology has been characterized by use of hybrids/ improved varieties, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water. After green revolution agricultural production has been very impressive but the excessive use of fertilizers and harmful pesticides has resulted in several undesirable effects on the environment and on the farming systems. However, indiscriminate use of synthetic chemical pesticides over the last four decades has adversely affected human health, non target organisms and environment and has also enhanced development of pesticide resistance among pest species While the former is exemplified by pesticide residues in soil, air, water, food etc., the latter includes phytotoxicity, physiological deform ities, diseases, mortality, population changes, genetic disorders, gene erosion, etc. in plant, mammal, avian, insect and other organisms. Entry of chemical pesticides into food chain and their bioaccumulation triggers several unforeseen consequences. However, in the conventional agriculture most of the weeds, pests, insects and diseases were controlled using natural and sustainable practices such as cultural, mechanical and physical control strategies. Environmental safety and agricultural sustainability are equally important for survival on the Earth. Therefore, it is the need of hour to identify the alternatives of suitable pesticides to control the insects-pests without sacrificing the productivity and profitability. Chemical pesticides has many side effects, eco-friendly management is essentially required for sustainable crop production in the present scenario.

1. Introduction

Malaria remains one of the most serious tropical diseases and kills an estimated one to two million people each year worldwide (Snow et al., 2005). Spread of drug resistance has played an important role in the occurrence and severity of epidemic diseases in the world (Majori, 2004). As a consequence of resistance to drugs such as quinine, chloroquine, primaquine and mefloquine, the vehemence of malaria has increased in many endemic regions of the world (Schlitzer, 2007; Basco et al., 1994). One of the biggest challenges to malaria control is the emergence and spread of drug resistant P. falciparum strains. Although human malaria transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes has four Plasmodium species as its aetiological agents P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovaleand P. malariae, the most widespread and severe disease is caused by P. falciparum, which transiently infects the liver before invading red blood cells of the mammalian host. Clinical manifestations occur at the erythrocytic stage and can include fever, chills, prostration and anaemia, as well as delirium, metabolic acidosis, cerebral malaria and multi-organ system failure, which may be followed by coma and death (Fidock et al., 2004; Deprez-Poulain et al., 2005, De Sa et al., 2009).The success of the natural product-based antimalarials such as quinine and artemisinin has showed the importance of plants as potential source of antimalarial agents. Consequently, numerous efforts to identify antiplasmodial activities from plants traditionally used as remedies for fever and malaria (Chen et al., 1997; Havsteen, 2002;

The term biodiversity is abbreviated from two different terms ‘biological’ and ‘diversity’. Biodiversity is also called biological diversity. The term biological diversity was first coined by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in 1968. The same term i.e. natural heritage was used in the United State. Geneticists describe it as the diversity of genes and organisms. Biologists define biodiversity as the sum of genes, species and ecosystems of a region.

Biodiversity is determined by the wholesome number of different species in a particular area. It helps to strengthen the stability of an ecosystem and leads to a healthy biosphere. Existence of biodiversity is crucial for the functioning of the ecosystem and is the foundation of life on earth as it generates products and services for the existence of all living organisms on the earth.