eChapters

Ring Porous

• having vessels more numerous and usually larger in cross section in the springwood with a resulting more or less distinct line between the springwood and the last season’s wood— compare diffuse-porous.

• In some species (e.g. Oak (Red Oak, White Oak) Teak and ash elm, hickory), the largest pores are in the earlywood while those in the latewood are more evenly distributed and uniform in size.

• These woods typically have distinct figures and patterns, and the uneven uptake of stain (the large pores soak up more colour) make the figure more pronounced.

• These are also known as open-grain woods

Semi-ring porous or Semi-diffuse porous

• In some species (e.g. Butternut, Black Cherry, Black Walnut, Pecan, Tanoak), pores are large in the earlywood and smaller toward the latewood, but without the distinct zoning seen in ring-porous woods.

• Also, some species that are usually ring-porous (e.g. Cottonwood) occasionally tend toward semi-ring porous.

Anatomy is the study of an internal structure of an organism, while morphology is the study of various external features of an organism Anatomy helps in knowing the structural peculiarities of different groups of plants, which help for adaptation to diverse environments. An angiosperm plant is characterized by the presence of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits

Plant cells: Plant cells are multicellular eukaryotic cells that make up a plant (a group of eukaryotes belonging to the Plantae kingdom, with the ability to synthesize their own food using water, sunlight and CO₂). Being eukaryotic cells, they have a defined nucleus with specialized structural organelles that enable it to function in an orderly manner.

Primary Dicot Root

A young dicot root which does not possess secondary tissues but only the primary permanent tissues (tissues derived from the apical growing point) is called primary dicot root. It is generally cylindrical in outline and possesses the following tissues.

I) Epiblema or Piliferous Layer

It is the outermost layer of the root. It is made of compactly arranged thin walled and slightly elongated parenchymatous cells. Epiblema of a root differs from the epidermis of the stem in being devoid of distinct cuticle and stomata. Some cells of the epiblema give rise to thin – walled tubular outgrowths called root hairs. In some plants the root hair mother cells are shorter in comparison to other epiblema cells. The root hairs and piliferous layer (pilus – hair, ferre to carry). The root hair and thin walled epiblema cells absorb water and mineral salts from the soil. Root hairs commonly do not live for more than one week. With their death the epiblema cells become suberised and cutinised.

II) Cortex

It lies below the epiblema. The cortex is made up of many layers of thin walled parenchyma cells. The parenchyma cells may be rounded or angular. They enclose inter-cellular spaces for diffusion of gases.The cells of the cortex store food. They also conduct water from the epiblema to the inner tissues.

Primary Dicot Stem

A stem with only primary permanent tissues is called primary stem. It represents a young stem. The different tissues present in dicot stem are arranged in concentric layers. e.g. Sunflower

I) Epidermis

Epidermis is the outermost layer of the stem. It is made up of compactly arranged parenchymatous cell, which look rectangular in transverse section. The cells are transparent and devoid of chloroplasts. The outer walls are convex, thickened and cutinized. On the outer side they possess a layer of cuticle. The internal walls of the epidermal cells are thin. The radial walls are thick towards the outer side and gradually become thin towards the inner side. Pits occur in the radial walls. The epidermis of sunflower bears several unbranched multicellular hair. At place the epidermis contains minute pores called stomata or stoma. Each stomata or stoma has a pair of specialized kidney shaped cells called guard cells. The guard cells have a few chloroplasts. By their swelling, the two guard cells can form a pore between them.

3.1 Tomato

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) is an important vegetable crop. Its 2n= 24.

Floral biology

Flowers are borne in small forked racemose cyme. Anthesis starts at 6.30 a.m. and continues up to 11.00 a.m. Anther dehiscence is longitudinal. It occurs 1-2 days after opening of corolla. The stamen sheds its pollen when the style grows up through anther tube, thus self-pollination occurs. When the stigma protrudes above the anther tube, chances of cross pollination through bees increases. The optimum temperature for pollination is around 21°C.

• Banarsi, Chakaiya, Francis (susceptible to fruit necrosis) NA-4 (Krishna), NA-6 (NA-5 Kanchan), NA-9 (Neelum), N-7 (Amrit) free necrosis.
• Anola can be grown in the light as well as heavy soils except for very sandy one. However, well-drained fertile loamy soil is the best for its growth.
• Though Aonla is a subtropical fruit, it can be cultivated in a tropical climate quite successfully.
• Descending order of area wise production: Azamgarh < Pratapgarh < Varanasi < Bareilly
• Commercially propagated by Patch/T Budding
• Planting time is during July with a distance of 8m × 8m.
• The plant should be trained to a modified Leader system.
• By NDU in UP is the application of 10kg FYM, 125gN 50g P2O5 and 50g K2O per one-year-old plant.
• Age of 8 years (1000gN, 400g P2O5 and 400g2K2/O tree)
• Use of fertilizer is required during April-May and September-October.
• Flower bud differentiation in the 1st week of March.
• Sir ration (male to female) (1:307-1:197)

Anthurium (Anthurium andraeanum Linden) belongs to the complex family Araceae, is a slow growing perennial that requires shady, humid conditions as found in tropical forests. The name anthurium is derived from Greek word “anthos” meaning flower and “oura” tail referring to the spadix. Thus, anthurium is also known as “tail flower” (Tajuddin and Prakash 1996). Anthuriums are gaining popularity due to higher returns per unit area and their beautiful and attractive long lasting flowers. Anthurium ranks ninth in the global flower trade and commands a respectable price both for its cut flower and whole plant. Commercial production has focused on two major species viz. A. andraeanum and A. scherzerianum. A. andraeanum is grown mostly for cut flower production, the main production areas being Hawaii, The Netherlands, and some other tropical and subtropical countries. A. scherzerianum is sold as a flowering potted plant, with main production areas located in Europe. In India, the anthurium cut flower industry is still in its infancy. At present anthuriums are mostly grown in some small gardens and nurseries. The important states cultivating anthuriums are Assam, Kerala, Tamilnadu (Salem), Karnataka (Coorg) and Mizoram where the favourable climate exists (Agasimani et al., 2011).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Anthurium andreanum Linden Ex Andre is named after a French Horticulturist Edouard Francois Andre (1840-1911) who discovered it in 1876 and described it for the first time. The genus includes around 1000 species (Croat, 1980). Most of them are tropical herbs originating from warm areas of Central and South America (Gantait et al., 2008). The distribution of this genus extends from northern Mexico and the Greater Antilles to southern Brazil, northern Argentina, and Paraguay (Croat and Sheffer, 1983). Most anthurium species are native of tropical rain forests and are primarily epiphytic in nature. Thus, in their natural habitat, they receive ample, frequent water with good drainage. In Brazil, it is noted the occurrence of around 130 native species (Gonçalves, 2003).

In Malaysia, anthurium is mostly grown in Pahang (Cameron highlands), Selangor, Perak and Johor mainly for cut flower production. The Netherlands is the chief supplier of the anthurium in the European market. Hawaii covers 60% export share of Japan and the rest of the west coast of the USA. The Caribbean produces the anthurium for the east coast of United States and Canada. Mauritius is one of the important producer of anthurium and it exports to Japan and Italy. While some eastern countries like Taiwan, Philippines, China and Thailand mainly produce for their local market. In India, anthurium is commercially grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra and north east India. Kerala is identified as the most desirable place for growing anthurium (Singh, 2006).

Antirrhinum is a genus commonly known as snapdragon belongs to family Scrophulariaceae. Snapdragon is one of the flowering plant present with vast genetic diversity in India. The term Antirrhinum is derived from the Greek word “anti” means like and “rhin” means a nose, referring to the snout like shape of the flower. The cultivated Antirrhinum majus is grown in tropical, subtropical and temperate countries. The common name snapdragon, originates from the flowers reaction to having their throats squeezed, which causes the mouth of the flower to snap open like a dragon’s mouth. Flowers are borne on terminal long spikes of many colours except blue and with numerous shades. It is one of the excellent cut flowers which have long lasting qualities. These are also used as garden plants, bedding plants, in rockeries or herbaceous borders and as potted plants. Plants can be grown for cut flowers in an open field or under protection depending on the climate. The leaves and flowers are antiphlogistic, bitter, resolvent and stimulant (Chiej, 1984).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The garden snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus) has emerged as a model organism during early studies of inheritance and mutation (Darwin, 1868) because of its diploid inheritance, ease of cultivation and variation in morphology and flower colour. The genus Antirrhinum includes 15 New World species in the section Saerorhinum and 21 Old World species in the sections Antirrhinum and Orontium. A. majus (Snapdragon) is a species of Antirrhinum native to the Mediterranean region, from Morocco and Portugal north to southern France and East to Turkey and Syria. Most species are found around the Mediterranean Sea and in North America (Stubbe, 1966). The progenitor of the modern snapdragon is from the Mediterranean region and more specifically, it is native to southern France. It was believed that the snapdragon reached Britain with the Romans at an early date, where it has been naturalized on mountainous regions. Thereafter, it spread to different parts of the world from Britain.

The scientific name of the genus Antirrhinum was first defined by Carl von Linne in the year 1753. In the year 1914 Professor Erwin Baur the founder of the MaxPalnck-Institut für Züchtungsforschung in Cologne published a volume called ‘Einführung in die experimentelle Vererbungslehre’ (Introduction to Experimental Genetics) 2nd edition. This book contained several plates with reproductions of water colour paintings of snapdragons as examples. He crossed a white line with a red line resulting in a pink flower. This pink flower then was selfed and the offspring showed the typical distribution of 1 white, 2 pink and 1 red as a demonstration of Mendelian inheritance. Antirrhinum glandulous is native of California. In United States of America, winter flowering cultivars were introduced in 1926 by Frank Volz of Cheviot, Ohio. In 1959, snapdragon were included in the Agricultural Censuses of Horticulturally Special Crops and ranked seventh as a cut flower crop.

The genus Antirrhinum offers an inexhaustible resource for genetics-based studies in developmental biology, biochemistry and evolution (Stubbe, 1966). Wide diversity of Antirrhinum species, combined with classical and molecular genetics, the two traditional strengths of Antirrhinum provides an opportunity for developmental, evolutionary and ecological approaches (Schwarz-Sommer et al., 2003). Transposons responsible for flower variegation were identified in the 1980s. The Max-Planck-Institute in Cologne, Germany, allowing genes involved in flower and leaf development and in pigmentation to be isolated by transposon tagging. Population genetic studies that have been applied to Antirrhinum species show different population sizes, geographic distributions and breeding systems, from self-fertility to obligate out-crossing (Jimenez et al., 2002 and Mateu-Andres and de Paco, 2006). It was introduced to India with the advent of British. Among them, only A. majus has been domesticated as an ornamental.

ABSTRACT

A long term study was conducted to evaluate different aonla based silvipastoral systems for compatibility, productivity and conservation effects. Three grass species viz. dholu, hybrid napier and perennial arhar were evaluated for 14 years for degraded lands of Shivaliks. Hybrid napier because of its vigour growth adversely affected the growth of aonla but effect on yield turned non-significant. Arhar could survive only during pre-bearing state. Studies on soil losses and runoff for decades showed that Embilica officinalis + Chrysopogon fulvus was the best silvipastoral system for soil conservation. This system saved rainwater and soil in a range of 4.88 to 30.66 cm and 862-2818 kg ha^-1 respectively over sole plantation. The combination of Embilica officinalis + Chrysopogon fulvus proved to be the most effective silvipastoral system for reclamation of degraded lands and improving economic status of people in Shivalik foot hills.

Aonla or Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis Gaertn), belongs to family Euphorbiaceae, is indigenous to Indian subcontinents (Morton, 1960). It has become an important commercial fruit crop in India, due to its hardy nature, suitability to various waste lands, high productivity, nutritive and therapeutic values (Singh et al., 2003). In its processed form, is very popular among the social elites (Singh, 2012). As an indigenous fruit, it has extensive adaptability to grow in diverse climatic and soil conditions ranging from plain lands to hills. The climate ranging from hot tropical plains to humid subtropical mid-elevation hills has been found suitable for its cultivation. It is successfully raised in arid, semi-arid, coastal and warm temperate conditions. Similarly it grows well in saline, alkaline and degraded as well as in sandy, red and clay soils (Singh, 2012).

It is not merely a source of nutrients and medicines but its cultivation is also highly remunerative for small and marginal farmers. Traditionally, aonla has been a common crop of forest or household, but during the last decade or two, unprecedented expansion has been witnessed in the sphere of aonla cultivation across the country, utilizing the wasteland. Many small and big orchards have been established. This has resulted in efficient utilization or resources culminating in increase in farmers’ income and nutritional security coupled with enhanced employment and better utilization of wastelands.

Origin and history  : Aonla or Indian gooseberry is also known as Indian amla. Aonla is the tropical South eastern Asia particularly central and southern India. It is commercially grown in Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. In Uttar Pradesh aonla cultivation is more popular in Pratapgarh, Mirzapur and Barely. It is very rich from nutritional point of view being next to Barbados cherry in terms of vitamin C content (500-750 mg/100g pulp)which is not oxidized due to presence of tannins and even it is least destroyed during storage. Besides, it has an excellent medicinal value. It can be grown successfully in arid climate and in the soils of higher pH and poor fertility wastelands.

• Seeds stratification at 4-7°C for 60-90 days from December to February.
• Scions cannot be used for grafting at their active stage of growth.
• Meadow orcharding: 20,000-70,000 plants/ha (Super high density)
• Bitter pit of apple: Golden delicious, yellow (due to calcium) Newton.
• Internal browning: Newton
• Himachal Pradesh is known as the “Apple bowl of India”
• Flower colour: White to Pink
• Apple is the most widely grown temperate fruit in the world
• India rank 5th in apple production in the world
• Apple crop accounts for 55% of the total area and 75% of the total production of temperate fruits in the country.
• 25% to 33% of pollinating trees in India are recommended for regular cropping.
• San Jose scale was introduced in India from France in 1906.
• Apple cider-fermented wine is prepared from apples.

This chapter introduces approaches for understanding, assessing, and reducing the vulnerability of forest ecosystems to climate change. It examines the impacts of changing climatic conditions on forests and considers factors such as forest fragmentation, biodiversity, tree density, disturbance, and community dependence on forest resources. The chapter discusses methods and models for vulnerability assessment, including indicator-based and spatial approaches, and explains how vulnerability can be mapped and classified. It also considers strategies for minimizing climate impacts and enhancing forest resilience through appropriate management and conservation interventions.

• Drought resistant, Salt tolerant and hardy temperate fruit crop
• Highly perishable fruit
• Vitamin A 2600IU
• Thiamine : 217mg/100g
• Wild apricot or Zardalu has originated from India.
• Popular training system – Open vase system
• Apricot bears on spurs and laterally on 1year-old shoots.
• Apricot spur life – 3-4 years
• Ideal thinning agent – NAA @25-50ppm, 20 days after fruit set
• Ideal stage for freezing, canning and drying fully ripe fruits
• Chaubattia Alankar – Kaishu × Charmagz – Low chilling and early ripening
• Chaubattia Madhu – Turkey × Charmagz – Early ripening
• Chaubattia Kesri – St. Amrbois × Charmagz – mid season variety
• Low chilling subtropical varieties – New Castle, Early Shipley, St. Ambroise, Kaisha.

“The way to health is the way to have an aromatic bath and a scented massage everyday”                        Hippocrates

Aromatherapy is the art and science of using fragrant volatile plant oils and herbs including essential oils, for psychological and physical well-being of man by promoting natural healing and health. It is an emerging art of healing through essential oil, which has got therapeutic effect on body, mind and soul.  Essential oils give calmness, emotional and hormonal balance, stress relief and rejuvenation. Medicinal and spiritual properties of scented herbs were noted by ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. Embalming of body of Egyptian Pharaohs was a practice to purify body for afterlife, whereas Egyptian priests used oils and incense as healers. Books were written in ancient Arabia indicating uses and benefits of certain aromas. Perfumed mortar was used by Babylonians to build temples and mosques, for premises cleaning and cleansing aromas. Ancient Greek believed sweet smells were of divine origin and they used to take aromatic bath to drench them in purity. Aromatic bath and scented massage were ways to health for Romans.

The artificial seed production technique was first used in clonal propagation to cultivate somatic embryos placed into an artificial endosperm and constrained by an artificial seed coat. Today artificial seeds represent capsules with a gel envelope, which contains not only somatic embryos but also axillary and apical buds or stem and root segments (Vdovitchenko and Kuzovkina, 2011).

The prime requirements for preparation of artificial seeds are high frequency somatic embryogeniccalli, synchronous embryo development and maximum conversion of embryos into plants. Success in production of synthetic seeds mainly depends on how best callus development and plantlet regeneration are achieved. However, over time the morphogenetic competence of differentiated cultures declines (Lynch and Benson, 1991). Therefore, the primary goal of synthetic seed production is to produce somatic embryos that resemble more closely to the true seed embryo in storage and handling characteristics so that they can be utilized as a unit for clonal propagation and germplasm conservation. Synthetic seeds may be hydrated or dehydrated and may be quiescent or not. Encapsulation of micropropagules enables to satisfy the requirements of synthetic seed development. The gelling agents used for encapsulation for production of synthetic seeds act as protective cover. The encapsulated synthetic seeds also contain growth nutrients, plant growth promoting microorganisms (mycorrhizah, Rhizobium, etc.), and/or other biochemical constituents necessary for optimal embryo-to-plant development (Fig. 4.1). Fungicides may also be used in the liquid gelling medium to protect them during storage and germination in vitro and in vivo.

Vegetative propagation enables horticulturists to multiply plants while retaining desirable genetic characteristics of selected mother plants. This chapter covers important methods including cuttings, layering, budding, grafting, division, and specialized vegetative structures. The physiological basis of rooting, wound healing, callus formation, compatibility, and environmental requirements is discussed. Grafting and budding are particularly important for combining desirable scion characteristics with suitable rootstock traits such as vigor, disease resistance, stress tolerance, and adaptation. Proper sanitation and selection of healthy propagation material are emphasized to minimize pathogen transmission. Modern techniques such as rooting hormones, mist chambers, protected propagation, and clonal multiplication further improve the efficiency and uniformity of vegetative propagation.

Availability of genetic variability and exploitation of this variability are two basic requirements of successful crop breeding programmes. The presence of genetic variation in a character is a must for any improvement in that character. If all the individuals in a population are identical i.e. no variation is there, selection cannot be done, so no improvement will be done. In case of crops, if variation is not present or variation is very small, variations are created through hybridization, mutation, polyploidy etc. Selection is identification and isolation of desirable plants from a variable population. A population consists of large number of heterogenous individuals with different morphological expressions. This variability is contributed by three factors: 1. Genetic constitution of individual, 2. Environmental effect on the individual and 3. Interaction effect between gene and environment. These three factors contribute towards the phenotypic variability among the individuals of the population. Assessment of magnitude of variability present in a crop species is of utmost importance as it provides the evidence for effective selection. Phenotypic variation in a population arises due to genotypic and environmental effects.

What is the use of several trees grown in the forest? A single tree by the way side is far better where under people can rest (Vrikshayurveda).

The towns and villages are made more healthy, more beautiful and more efficient by well planned streets with avenue planting. There is no doubt that, an impressive avenue gives any property the special distinction that it desires. In the past, Emperor Ashoka and Mughal rulers paid attention to roadside planting. Avenue trees primarily provide shade and act as windbreaks, weather conditioners-by purifying and humidifying the air, check radiation of heat and obstruct glare, limit noise and enhance the beauty of the street where they are planted. Roadside planting has two aspects; beauty and utility and both these aspects should be combined. This requires a thorough knowledge of plant material and imagination in planning.

What is the use of several trees grown in the forest? A single tree by the way side is far better where under people can rest (Vrikshayurveda).

The towns and villages are made more healthy, more beautiful and more efficient by well planned streets with avenue planting. There is no doubt that, an impressive avenue gives any property the special distinction that it desires. In the past, Emperor Ashoka and Mughal rulers paid attention to roadside planting. Avenue trees primarily provide shade and act as windbreaks, weather conditioners-by purifying and humidifying the air, check radiation of heat and obstruct glare, limit noise and enhance the beauty of the street where they are planted. Roadside planting has two aspects; beauty and utility and both these aspects should be combined. This requires a thorough knowledge of plant material and imagination in planning.