eChapters

Sustainability in agricultural production is guided by the overriding philosophy of ‘feed the soil to feed the plant’. Adequate supply of plant nutrients is required to ensure efficient crop production. Plants use individual chemical elements and ions as their food. In 1939, Arnon and Stout laid down three criteria for the essentiality of a plant nutrient.

According to the present state of our knowledge, sixteen-elements are considered to be essential for plant growth and development. These nutrients are chemical elements, which are absorbed by the plants in more or less quantity to transform light energy into chemical energy and to keep up plant metabolism for the synthesis of organic material. These elements are regarded as essential in higher plants.

These are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potash, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur, Zinc, Manganese, Copper, Iron, Boron, Molybdenum and Chlorine. Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen are obtained from air and water. Carbon makes up the great bulk of the plant and is obtained from carbon dioxide in the air. Hydrogen is derived mainly from the breakdown of water. Oxygen is obtained from air as well as water. Other thirteen elements are obtained from mineral and organic components of the soil. These elements are further grouped into major/macro and minor/micro-elements. The nutrients that are required in relatively larger quantities are termed as macro elements. Micronutrients that are required in relatively lesser quantities are termed as micro nutrients.

Fruits and vegetables are the major constituents of daily diet. They provide not only body building elements but also energy yielding food for the wellbeing of humans. Main object of the nutrition garden is to make availability of the requisite quantity of fresh fruits and vegetables to family members. It is generally raised in the backyard of home. It is also called as a home garden or kitchen garden. Most of the day to day cultural operations are performed by family members. Working in the nutrition garden during their spare time is a pleasure, an inspiration, a means of recreation to all the family members. The foremost advantage of nutrition garden is to daily supply fresh fruits and vegetables as per the needs of family members. Nutrition garden has an important role in enhancing national food security and dietary diversity to combat malnutrition.

Points to be considered, while the planning and layout of nutrition garden

Healthy body maintains a healthy mind. Fruits and vegetables are said to be protective food as they provide proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, roughages, organic acids, enzymes and energy for normal growth and sustenance of physiological activities of human beings. Fruits and vegetables provide palatability, taste and improve appetite. It also provides fiber to prevent constipation. They reduce the ill-effect of acids produced during digestion of proteins and fatty acids. Thus, they protect the human body from various deficiency disorders.

Important fact is that most of the Indians are vegetarians. The incorporation of fruits and vegetables in daily diet is essential as body building elements and calorie yielding foods for good health. Comparatively fruits and vegetables are the cheapest source of natural nutritive foods and are an important component of a balanced diet Balanced diet is a diet which contains body building elements and calorie yielding foods in an appropriate proportion for normal growth and well-being of a person. According to ICMR, New Delhi; 120 g fruits and 280-300 g vegetables should be consumed per day per capita. Vegetables include 80-100 g of leafy vegetables, 100-125 g of tubers as energy source and remaining as other vegetables.

Cashew Kernels

The role of balanced diet in contributing to a long and healthy life is undisputed. Diet related diseases are quite common even among the people of the affluent West. Unlike in developing countries, where many diseases are caused by deficiency in the quantity and / quality of diet. The diet related diseases among affluent populations result from excessive consumption of undesirable foods. Over consumption of foods of animal origin like meat and eggs are implicated in the causation of atherosclerotic heart diseases. Annual food consumption has also been suggested as possible aetiological factor in some cancers. After years of research, scientists are finding health benefits in a largely plant based diet emphasising foods low in saturated fats. On the basis of the awareness that excess animal food consumption is harmful, recent dietary guidelines all over the world recommend a reduction in the intake of meat and meat products and a liberal increase in consumption of fruits and nuts. Like meat and eggs, nuts are abundant in proteins, the body building material essential for growth and maintenance of tissues. Nuts are also a concentrated source of energy, since they contain liberal amounts of fat.

Orchard management is one of the important aspects in the horticulture industry. Success of orchards is mostly depends upon economic utilization of natural resources namely land, water, trees and other external inputs. All these resources have to be well utilized to the best advantage for higher production per unit area on a sustainable basis without adversely affecting the quality of the environment. Important aspects of orchard management are related with soil and water conservation, canopy management, nutrition management, weed management, plant protection measures, biotic and abiotic stress management, maturity and harvest, post harvest handling, utilization and marketing.

Soil management: Soil management aims at maintaining the fertility and productivity of soil. It creates favorable conditions for moisture supply, proper drainage and nutrient availability. It helps to maintain high fertility level and replenishment against losses, gaseous exchange, microbial activities, it helps to check soil erosion, suppress the weed population, economic utilization of interspace of main crops. Common soil management practices are cultivation, sod culture, mulching and rotation.

Orchard: Establishment of orchard is a long term investment. It is require a proper planning, any mistake during the selection of site, planting distance, choice of crop/variety, quality of nursery stock etc. reflect greatly on the orchard performance and efficiency.

Following points are keep in mind at time of orchard planning-

1.    Road- Orchard should be well connected with the road for facilitate transportation of material to the orchard and produce of orchard to the market.

2.    Orchard structure- In structure office, implementshed, go-down come store etc. are required. Area under these structures is not more than 10% of total area.

3.    Fencing and wind break- Before planting of plants, installation of fence is necessary for protecting the undesirable element. Fencing can be done by erecting a wall or by fixing iron angle or concrete cement pillar and titening with running 4 to 5 times at a distance of 30-40 cm barbed wire.

Successful orchard establishment requires careful planning of site, climate, soil, water, planting material, spacing, and crop architecture. This chapter explains principles of orchard planning and establishment, including site evaluation, land preparation, layout, pit preparation, planting systems, and selection of suitable cultivars and rootstocks. Traditional and modern planting systems, including high-density and ultra-high-density systems, are discussed in relation to light interception, productivity, mechanization, and efficient resource use. Proper orchard design also facilitates irrigation, fertigation, pruning, harvesting, and plant protection. The chapter emphasizes long-term planning because perennial horticultural crops remain productive for many years and early establishment decisions strongly influence future orchard performance.

Orchids belong to family Orchidaceae, the largest family of the flowering plants. The term ‘orchid’ has its origin from the Greek word, “orchid” meaning “testicle”, referring to the paired underground tubers of terrestrial orchids. There are several generas in orchids, which are popular for their separate importance as cut flower, pot plant, medicinal properties, flavour extraction, etc. The fascinating flowers exhibit an incredible range of shape, size and colour, long life of flowers on plant and an amazingly long keeping quality, which no other plant can claim.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Majority of the cultivated orchids are native of tropical countries and occur widely in humid tropical forests of South and Central America, Mexico, India, Ceylon, Burma, South China, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, New Guinea and Australia. Brazilean cattleyas, Mexican laelias and Indian dendrobiums, cymbidiums and vandas have been extensively utilized for the development of modern orchid industry in the world.

Organic farming is one of the several approaches found to meet the objectives of sustainable agriculture. It is often associated and sometimes confused with
‘sustainable farming’. However, policy and ethics-wise ‘organic farming’ is different from ‘sustainable farming’. Organic farming is based on various laws
and certification programmes whereas sustainable agriculture is the practice of farming using principles of ecology.

The word ‘organic’, means ‘living’, ‘earth friendly’ or ‘of plant or animal origin’. Organic farming is a very native concept of India and has been followed from ancient times. Soil is a living entity and the focus in organic farming is the soil itself. Of course, it is based on understanding the ways of nature. All organic waste from agriculture and other sources is recycled to enrich the soil. Thus, the health of the soil and its structure is maintained. The natural microorganisms of the soil are protected and nurtureed.

Organic farming is primarily aimed at cultivating the land and raising crops in such a way to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes and other biological means of sustainable production in an ecofriendly pollution free environment.

As per the definition of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) study team; organic farming is a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs namely fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives, etc. and to the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection.

Sustainable horticulture seeks to produce nutritious and economically valuable crops while conserving soil, water, biodiversity, and other natural resources. This chapter examines organic, natural, and broader sustainable production systems and their underlying principles. Topics include organic inputs, compost, biofertilizers, biological pest management, crop diversification, mulching, recycling, soil-health improvement, and reduced dependence on synthetic inputs. Certification systems and market requirements are also considered, including Indian and international organic standards. The chapter distinguishes different production philosophies while emphasizing practical sustainability. Successful systems must maintain productivity, profitability, environmental quality, and consumer confidence. Sustainable horticulture therefore combines ecological principles with sound crop management, market awareness, and responsible resource use

The bougainvillea varieties reported from India have been mentioned above. The exact origin of all the varieties are not available. Breeders, sometimes, do not disclose the origin of varieties. An attempt has been made to trace out the mode of origin of different varieties as per available information (Anonymous 1981, Sindhu 2015, Sindhu and Swaroop 2015, Singh 1999, Singh et al., 1999, Nirody 1932, Sharma 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1968, Sharma 1969, Pancho 1963, 1967, Marigowda 1957, Pancho and Elisco 1959, Pancho and Capinpin 1961, Pancho et al., 1961). Information available is not complete in most cases. Following abbreviations have been used – Hybrid Seedling (HS), Bud Sport (BS), Induced Mutant (IM) :

Ajowan is a profusely branched winter annual herb, seed oil of which is a major source of thymol, being present to extent of 35-60%. Ajowan oil is aromatic, stimulant and carminative.  It possesses antimicrobial activity. Ajowan seeds are employed either alone or in combination with spices and condiments. It is used in pickles, confectionery and beverages.  It is a good remedy for indigestion.  A paste of crushed fruit is applied externally for relieving colic pains.  It is also used in lotions and ointments.

Pansy belongs to the family Violaceae, genus Viola and species tricolor. Pansy also known as butterfly flower, cat face. Pansies are annuals or short-lived perennials, grow 15-30 cm tall and have heart-shaped leaves at the base and oblong leaves growing from the stems. The pansy is quite durable and a “flower for all seasons”. The fragrant and edible blooms are desirable in gardens. Pansy popularity increases possible due to its ease of growing. Whether grown from seed or bedding plants, pansies are relatively disease and pest free blooming prolifically for the gardener’s enjoyment. The pansy is a group of hybrid plants cultivated as garden flowers. Pansies are derived from Viola species Viola tricolor hybridized with other Viola species, these hybrids are referred to as Viola × wittrockiana or less commonly Viola tricolor hortensis. The pansy is used in phytotherapy. The pansy is the symbol of Free thought. For Viola species, there is strong resistance to cold, flowering early and long flowering period. Also be used to cover a large area on the ground flower beds, its colour range, forming a unique landscape in early spring, but also in the flower bed with the string of red, petunia colour, or for potted plants and planted tank, decorative balconies, bay windows and stairs.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The modern pansy, Viola x wittrockiana, is thought to have derived from Viola tricolor, a native of central Europe. The center of origin for Viola was continental Europe. Viola is widely distributed in temperate areas in the northern hemisphere and in S. America, with centres of diversity in S.E. Europe, E. Asia and S. America; isolated endemics occur in Africa (equatorial high mountains and the Cape), E. Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and Hawaii. V. sororia as defined by McKinney (1992), is widely found across the United States and Canada. Each subspecies has a smaller distribution. V. sororia var. sororia is found in the mid to eastern United States and southern Canada, V. sororia var. affinis, is found in western and extreme northeastern sections of the United States and Canada, V. sororia var. missouriensis is found in the eastern United States, and V. sororia var. novae-angliae is found in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Maine, Quebec and New Brunswick. Of the four varieties only V. sororia var. sororia and V. sororia var. missouriensis are native to New Jersey (McKinney, 1992). V. sororia var. sororia is found in drier areas than the other four subspecies and often in waste grounds (McKinney, 1992) or on the forest floors of open woods in semi-shaded conditions (McKinney, 1992).

Yellow pigment in papaya - Caricaxanthin

• The enzyme present in dried latex of papaya (papain) is pepsin.
• Frost is the most limiting factor for papaya cultivation in North India.
• Papaya is a polygamous plant. –
• 20 seeds of papaya weigh one gram
• Carpine obtained from papaya is used as a diuretic and heart stimulant.
• 10% male plants are planted wherein dioecious varieties are calculated.
• Papaya plants are extremely susceptible to waterlogging.
• Papaya is thermosensitive crop.

  Carica candoamarcensis is scientific name for Mountain papaya.

• Papaya has the highest production after banana.
• Sunrise Solo type papaya produces no male plants.

Origin and history: Papaya has long been known as wonder fruit of the tropics and is one of the five major fruit crops of tropical world, papaya fruits throughout the year and a remunerative fruit crop which is grown in almost every part of the country. It gives maximum yield per unit and income next to banana. It is generally grown as fruit plant in kitchen garden, home garden or nutrition garden and later as commercial fruit. It is also planted as a filler plant in a fruit orchard. India is the second largest producer of papaya in the world after Brazil. It is a fruit native to tropical America and commercially grown in many parts of the world viz., Australia, Hawaii, Taiwan, Puerto Rico, Peru, Florida, Texas, California, South Africa, Pakistan, Bangladesh and India. In India, it was introduced by Portuguese in 1611. It is grown in Karnataka, Bihar, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Gujarat, Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh etc.

Paphiopedilum is a genus of the orchid subfamily Cypripedioideae and family Orchidaceae. It is derived from Paphos and ancient Greek word “pedilon” means “slipper”. Paphiopedilums are often called “slipper orchids” because of their unique pouch. The pouch traps insects seeking nectar and to leave again they have to climb up past the staminode, behind which they collect or deposit pollinia. Paphiopedilum has a highly ornamental value being the treasure of Orchidaceae. They are easily grown as houseplants and their care is very similar to African Violets.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The genus name Paphiopedilum was established by Ernst Hugo Heinrich Pfitzer in 1886. Ironically, no paphiopedilum occurs on Cyprus- at least not as the genus is understood today. But it was long mixed up with its holarctic relative Cypripedium, which indeed grows in the Mediterranean region. Paphiopedilum was finally decided to be a valid taxon in 1959, but its use has become restricted to eastern Asian species. The genus is native to Indo-Malaysia (South China, Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands) and India. Paphiopedilum armeniacum is found from China (west Yunnan province) to northern Myanmar. It occurs at 1,600 to 2,000 metres above sea level. It is found growing on limestone hills, in semi-shaded deciduous forest, usually on cliffs above rivers.

SPECIES

Over fifty species of Paphiopedilum have been discovered in the far east from the higher, cooler elevations of the Himalayas, across to China and Southeast Asia and down to the warmer, sea-level regions of Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines (Hawkes, 1965). Most species, like Paphiopedilum callosum are terrestrial in nature growing under the shaded and moist conditions of the forest floor (Fitch, 1982). Some species, such as Paphiopedilum niveum are lithophytic found in colonies on the coastal rock formations of the Malaysian islands (Fitch, 1982a). While a few of the larger strap-leaf Paphiopedilum species exposed to the higher light conditions found in their loftier habitats. Paphiopedilum philippinense var. roebelenii and Paphiopedilum lowii provide a strong contrast to such as Paph. lowii, are usually epiphytic Paphiopedilum charlesworthii previously described and serve to illustrate the extent of variation in both plant and flower habit within this genus. Unlike the single-flowered spikes of Paphiopedilum charlesworthii, which are usually around 15 cm tall, those of Paph. philippinense var. roebelenii and Paph. lowii can bear up to a half-dozen flowers and can measure 60 cm or more in length. Paphiopedilums with this kind of flowering habit are referred to as multifloral paphiopedilums (Batchelor). The plants themselves can be quite large particularly in the case of Paphiopedilum lowii, where individual leaves are often well over 30 cm long, though narrow.

• Highly susceptible to waterlogging.
• Self-compatible in nature.
• Low chilling peach - <500 hrs chilling requirement.
• Red blush skins are caused due to anthocyanins.
• The yellow colour of peach is due to xanthophylls.
• Acid present - Malic acid
• Prunasin is the principal glycoside present in the pulp.
• Amygdalin is present in the seeds of peach.
• The oil content of peach seeds is 40-50%
• Prunus behmi is a natural hybrid of Almond and Peach.
• - Smooth skinned peaches (Prunus persica var. nucipersica) also called nectarine.
• Yellow fleshed peaches are ideal for table and canning purpose.

• More tolerant to wet soils but less tolerant to drought than apple.
• Browning of pears is due to polygalacturonase activity.
• Major acid - Malic Acid
• Chilling - China Pear (Low chilling) - 150 hrs.
• European pear - 1200-1500hrs.
• Most commonly used clonal rootstock - Quince A cutting.
• Quince is scientifically - Cydonia oblonga origin - South-Eastern Europe and Asia minor.
• Quince is a monotypic genus
• Vigorous rootstock - Pyrus pashia
• Graft incompatibility is overcome by double grafting with old home or hardy varieties.
• In India, the open center system is common
• Training system modified central leader system